Measuring Source Memory
Abstract
Abstract. The investigation of source monitoring (SM) as a special faculty of episodic memory has gained much attention in recent years. However, several measures of source memory have been used in research practice that show empirical and theoretical shortcomings: First, they often confound various cognitive processes like source memory, item memory and response bias, and second, they do not do justice to the multitude of processes involved in SM according to the framework of Johnson, Hashtroudi, and Lindsay (1993). We therefore review model-based measurement approaches, focusing on multinomial models, and we distinguish between theorizing about source memory and the pragmatics of source memory measurement as two partly separate goals of research. Whereas signal detection models seem to be more adequate theories of the underlying source monitoring process, multinomial models have some pragmatic advantages that nevertheless recommend them as viable measurement tools.
References
Banks, W.P. (2000). Recognition and source memory as multivariate decision processes. Psychological Science, 11, 267– 273Batchelder, W.H. Riefer, D.M. (1990). Multinomial processing models of source monitoring. Psychological Review, 97, 548– 564Batchelder, W.H. Riefer, D.M. (1999). Theoretical and empirical review of multinomial process tree modeling. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 57– 86Batchelder, W.H. Riefer, D.M. Hu, X. (1994). Measuring memory factors in source monitoring: Reply to Kinchla. Psychological Review, 101, 172– 176Bayen, U.J. Murnane, K. Erdfelder, E. (1996). Source discrimination, item detection, and multinomial models of source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 197– 215Bayen, U.J. Nakamura, G.V. Dupuis, S.E. Yang, C.L. (2000). The use of schematic knowledge about sources in source monitoring. Memory and Cognition, 28, 480– 500Bröder, A. Noethen, D. Schütz, J. Bay, P. in press Utilization of covariation knowledge in source monitoring: no evidence for implicit processes. Psychological Research,Buchner, A. Erdfelder, E. Steffens, M.C. Martensen, H. (1997). The nature of memory processes underlying recognition judgments in the process dissociation procedure. Memory and Cognition, 25, 508– 517DeCarlo, L.T. (2003). Source monitoring and multivariate signal detection theory, with a model for selection. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 47, 292– 303Dodson, C.S. Holland, P.W. Shimamura, A.P. (1998). On the recollection of specific- and partial-source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1121– 1136Dodson, C.S. Shimamura, A.P. (2000). Differential effects of cue dependency on item and source memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1023– 1044Erdfelder, E. Bredenkamp, J. (1998). Recognition of script-typical versus script-atypical information: Effects of cognitive elaboration. Memory and Cognition, 26, 922– 938Erdfelder, E. Buchner, A. (1998). Process-dissociation measurement models: Threshold theory or detection theory?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 83– 97Frick, A. (2001). Erinnerung an Szenen: Gibt es einen Atypikalitätseffekt im Quellengedächtnis?. [Remembering scenes: Is there a typicality effect in source memory?]. Unpublished diploma thesis, University of Bonn, GermanyGlanzer, M. Hilford, A. Kim, K. (2004). Six regularities of source recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 1176– 1195Glisky, E.L. Rubin, S.R. Davidson, P.S.R. (2001). Source memory in older adults: An encoding or retrieval problem?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1131– 1146Hoffman, H.G. (1997). Role of memory strength in reality monitoring decisions: Evidence form source attribution biases. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 371– 383Hu, X. (1999). Multinomial processing tree models: An implementation. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 31, 689– 695Hu, X. Batchelder, W.H. (1994). The statistical analysis of general processing tree models with the EM algorithm. Psychometrika, 59, 21– 47Johnson, M.K. Hashtroudi, S. Lindsay, D.S. (1993). Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 3– 28Johnson, M.K. Raye, C.L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88, 67– 85Klauer, K.C. Wegener, I. (1998). Unraveling social categorization in the “Who said what?” paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1155– 1178Klauer, K.C. Wegener, I. Ehrenberg, K. (2002). Perceiving minority members as individuals: The effects of relative group size in social categorization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 223– 245Malmberg, K.J. (2002). On the form of ROCs constructed from confidence ratings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 380– 387Mather, M. Johnson, M.K. De Leonardis, D.M. (1999). Stereotype reliance in source monitoring: Age differences and neuropsychological test correlates. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 16, 437– 458Meiser, T. (2005). A hierarchy of multinomial models for multidimensional source monitoring. Methodology, 1, 2– 17Meiser, T. Bröder, A. (2002). Memory for multidimensional source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 116– 137Meiser, T. Hewstone, M. (2004). Cognitive processes in stereotype formation: The role of correct contingency learning for biased group judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 599– 614Meiser, T. Hewstone, M. (2006). Illusory and spurious correlations: Distinct phenomena or joint outcomes of exemplar-based category learning?. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 315– 336Meiser, T. Sattler, C. (2007). Boundaries of the relation between conscious recollection and source memory for perceptual details. Consciousness and Cognition, 16, 189– 210Meiser, T. Sattler, C. von Hecker, U. (2007). Metacognitive inferences in source memory judgments: The role of perceived differences in item recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1015– 1040Multhaup, K.S. Balota, D.A. (1997). Generation effects and source memory in healthy older adults and in adults with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychology, 11, 382– 391Murnane, K. Bayen, U.J. (1996). An evaluation of empirical measures of source identification. Memory and Cognition, 24, 417– 428Riefer, D.M. Batchelder, W.H. (1988). Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 95, 318– 339Riefer, D.M. Hu, X. Batchelder, W.H. (1994). Response strategies in source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 680– 693Rothkegel, R. (1999). AppleTree: A multinomial processing tree modeling program for Macintosh computers. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 31, 696– 700Shimamura, A.P. Squire, L.R. (1987). A neuropsychological study of fact memory and source amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 464– 473Slotnick, S.D. Dodson, C.S. (2005). Support for a continuous (single-process) model of recognition memory and source memory. Memory and Cognition, 33, 151– 170Slotnick, S.D. Klein, S.A. Dodson, C.S. Shimamura, A.P. (2000). An analysis of signal detection and threshold models of source memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1499– 1517Snodgrass, J.G. Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 34– 50Spencer, W.D. Raz, N. (1995). Differential effects of aging on memory for content and context: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 10, 527– 539Stahl, C. (2006). Multinomiale Verarbeitungsbaummodelle in der Sozialpsychologie [Multinomial processing tree models in social psychology]. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37, 161– 171Stahl, C. Klauer, K.C. in press HMMTree: A computer program for hierarchical multinomial processing tree models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers,Starns, J.J. Hicks, J.L. (2005). Source dimensions are retrieved independently in multidimensional monitoring tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 1213– 1220Steffens, M.C. Buchner, A. Martensen, H. Erdfelder, E. (2000). Further evidence on the similarity of memory processes in the process dissociation procedure and in source monitoring. Memory and Cognition, 28, 1152– 1164Swets, J.A. (1986). Form of empirical ROCs in discrimination and diagnostic tasks: Implications for theory and measurement of performance. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 181– 198Vogt, V. Bröder, A. (2007). Independent retrieval of source dimensions: An extension of results by Starns and Hicks (2005) and a comment on the ACSIM measure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 443– 450Wegener, I. Klauer, K.C. (2005). Social categorization without fit: The effect of gender categories on the encoding of nonsense syllables. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 36, 91– 101Yonelinas, A.P. (1999). The contribution of recollection and familiarity to recognition and source-memory judgments: A formal dual-process model and an analysis of receiver operating characteristics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 1415– 1434Yu, J. Bellezza, F.S. (2000). Process dissociation as source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1518– 1533