Abstract
Abstract. This paper presents an extension of the process-dissociation procedure with wordstem completion, which makes possible the measurement of the stochastic relationship between consciously controlled and automatic processes. By means of an indirect wordstem completion test, the conditional probabilities of conscious remembering with and without automatic processes can be successfully determined. A multinomial model for the evaluation of this extended process-dissociation procedure is presented. This model makes the distinction between voluntary and involuntary conscious memory processes possible and has been applied to two experiments discussed in this paper. The results show that the assumption of stochastic independence is often violated, albeit not as strongly as predicted by the redundancy or exclusivity model variants. Two conscious processes were found, voluntary and involuntary conscious memory processes, each with a different probability of occurrence.
References
(1997). Human memory: Theory and practice.. Erlbaum: Psychology Press.
(1980). Separation of storage and retrieval factors in free recall of clusterable pairs. Psychological Review, 87, 375– 397
(1990). Multinomial processing models of source monitoring. Psychological Review, 97, 548– 564
(1999). Theoretical and empirical review of multinomial processing tree modeling. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 57– 86
(2000). Kontrollierte und automatische Gedächtnisprozesse bzgl. traumarelevanter Reize bei PTSD-Patienten.. Unpublished thesis: Bonn.
(1999). Conjoint recognition. Psychological Review, 106, 160– 179
(2001). Kontrollierte und automatische Gedächtnisprozesse bei PTSD-Patienten und Gesunden.. In R. Dohrenbusch, & F. A. Kaspers (Eds.), Fortschritte der Klinischen Psychologie und Verhaltensmedizin 89– 97 Lengerich: Pabst.
(1995). Toward unbiased measurement of conscious and unconscious memory processes within the process-dissociation framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 137– 160
(1996). On assumptions of, relations between, and evaluations of some process-dissociation measurement models. Consciousness and Cognition, 5, 581– 594
(1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. (rev. ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1996). Estimating unconscious processes: Implications of a general class of models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 195– 200
(1969). Precategorical acoustic storage (PAS). Perception and Psychophysics, 5, 365– 373
(1995). Violations of the independence assumption in process-dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 531– 547
(1994). Unconscious perception: Attention, awareness, and control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 304– 417
(1964). Memory: A Contribution to experimental psychology. (H. A. Ruger, & C. E. Bussenius). New York: Dover Publications. (Original work published 1885).
(1997). Strategy and consciousness in remembering subject-performed actions. Sprache und Kognition, 16, 94– 109
(1998). Stochastic versus functional independence in the process-dissociation procedure. Unpublished manuscript.
(1996). GPOWER: A general power analysis program. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 28, 1– 11
(1998). Process-dissociation measurement models: Threshold theory or detection theory?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 83– 96
(1995). Defining the opposition procedure: A reply to Reingold’s and Jacoby’s (1995) response to Graf and Komatsu (1994). European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 225– 231
(1994). Process dissociation procedure: Handle with caution!. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 6, 113– 129
(1997). Process dissociation, cognitive architecture, and response time: Comments on Lindsay and Jacoby (1994). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 23, 1561– 1578
(1997). More than one way to violate independence: Reply to Jacoby and Shrout (1997). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 511– 513
(1998). On the logic of testing the independence assumption in process-dissociation procedure. Memory & Cognition, 26, 857– 859
(1991). Statistical inference program for multinomial binary tree models. [computer program]. Irvine, CA: University of California at Irvine.
(1994). The statistical analysis of general processing tree models with the EM algorithm. Psychometrika, 59, 21– 48
(1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513– 541
(1998). Invariance in automatic influences of memory: Toward a user’s guide for the process-dissociation procedure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 3– 26
(1999). Ironic effects of repetition: Measuring age-related differences in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 3– 22
(1997). In defense of functional independence: Violations of assumptions underlying the process-dissociation procedure?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 484– 495
(1998). Age-related deficits in memory: Theory and application.. In M. A. Conway, S. Gathercole & C. Cornoldi (Eds.), Theories of memory II. London: Psychology Press Ltd.
(1997). Toward a psychometric analysis of violations of the independence assumption in process-dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 505– 510
(1993). Separating conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Measuring recollection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 139– 154
(1994). The relationship between conscious and unconscious influences: Independence or redundancy?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 216– 219
(1997). The relationship between conscious and unconscious (automatic) influences: A declaration of independence.. In J. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.) Scientific approaches to the question of consciousness, 13– 47 Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.
(1987). Independence and exclusivity among psychological processes: Implications for the structure of recall. Psychological Review, 94, 229– 235
(1993). Independence or redundancy? Two models of conscious and unconscious influences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 462– 467
(1996). Untersuchungen zur Beziehung bewußter und unbewußter Gedächtnisprozesse. [Investigations on the relation between conscious and unconscious memory processes]. (Thesis) Berlin: Logos.
(1998). Eine Normierung der Ergänzungen deutscher Wortanfänge zu Substantiven mit fünf oder sechs Buchstaben [Normative values for the completion of German wordstems]. Sprache & Kognition, 17, 51– 72
(1999). Die Erfassung bewußter und unbewußter Gedächtnisprozesse: Die Prozeß-Dissoziations-Prozedur. Probleme und Perspektiven einer neuen Methode.. [The measurement of conscious and unconscious memory processes: The process-dissociation procedure. Problems and perspectives of a new method]. Lengerich: Pabst.
(1997). Die stochastische Beziehung bewußter und automatischer Prozesse: Eine Erweiterung der Prozeß-Dissoziations-Prozedur [The stochastic relation between conscious and automatic processes: An extension of the process-dissociation procedure]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 44, 220– 245
(1997). Prozeß-Dissoziations-Modelle: Kritik, Erweiterung und Überprüfung. [Process-dissociation procedure: Critics, extensions, and tests].. In H. Mandl (Ed.), Bericht über den 40.Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in München 1996 (pp. 284– 289 Göttingen: Hogrefe.
(1994). Stroop process-dissociations: The relationship between facilitation and interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 219– 234
(1996). Creating illusions of familiarity in a cued recall remember/know paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language, 35, 197– 211
(1997). Conscious and unconscious influences of memory in a conceptual task: Limitations of a process-dissociation procedure.. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 55, 34– 48
(1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 519– 533
(1988). Goodness-of-fit statistics for discrete multivariate data.. New York: Springer.
(1988). Measures of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 475– 543
(1995). Retrieval volition and memorial awareness in stem completion: An empirical analysis. Psychological Research, 57, 166– 178
(1994). Involuntary conscious memory and the method of opposition. Memory, 2, 1– 29
(1996). Memory: Task dissociation, process-dissociation and dissociations of consciousness.. In G. Underwood (Ed.) Implicit cognition., 85– 158 Oxford: University Press.
(1998). Depth-of processing effects on priming in stem completion: Tests of the voluntary-contamination, conceptual-processing, and lexical-processing hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 593– 609
(1988). Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 95, 318– 339
(1991). Statistical inference for multinomial processing tree models.. In J.-P. Doignon, & J.-P. Falmagne (Ed.) Mathematical psychology. Current Developments, 313– 335 New York: Springer.
(1995). The directed forgetting effect in word fragment completion: An application of the process dissociation procedure. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48A, 405– 423
(1998). Consequences of violating the assumption of independence in a process dissociation procedure: A word fragment completion study. Memory & Cognition, 26, 617– 632
(1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501– 518
(1994). Toward a redefinition of implicit memory: Process-dissociations following elaborative processing and self-generation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 290– 303
(1994). Multinomiale Modellierung impliziter Gedächtnisprozesse: Ein alternativer Ansatz.[Multinomial modeling of implicit memory processes: An alternative approach]. Zeitschrift für experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie, 41, 295– 314
(1994). Unbewußte Effekte und Voreingenommenheiten bei Urteilen zu Personennamen [Unconscious effects and preconceptions in judgments of person names]. Zeitschrift für experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie, 41, 151– 172
(1995). Dissociating automatic and controlled processes in a memory-search task: Beyond implicit memory. Psychological Research, 57, 156– 165
(1996). Response bias and the process-dissociation procedure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 422– 439