Skip to main content
Original Article

Seeing More Than Others

Identification of Subtle Aggressive Information as a Function of Trait Aggressiveness

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000266

Abstract. Researchers have long argued that aggressive individuals automatically tend to perceive hostile intent in others, even when it is in fact absent (hostile attribution bias). Wilkowski and Robinson (2012) recently showed, however, that aggressive individuals were particularly accurate in the identification of subtle cues of facial anger, indicating greater perceptual sensitivity to anger information rather than a biased perception or interpretation. We tested the generality of this finding in four paradigms with different stimuli. As predicted by Wilkowski and Robinson, the more aggressive participants were, the more accurately they identified subtle aggressive information, whereas accuracy in the identification of nonaggressive emotional information was not a function of self-reported aggressiveness. The discussion focuses on the generality and limitations of the findings.

References

  • Aiken, L. S. & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Anderson, C. A., Buckley, K. E. & Carnegey, N. L. (2008). Creating your own hostile environment: A laboratory examination of trait aggressiveness and the violence escalation cycle. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 462–473. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291–322. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Barth, J. M. & Bastiani, A. (1997). A longitudinal study of emotion recognition and preschool children’s social behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 107–128. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Berkowitz, L. (2008). On the consideration of automatic as well as controlled psychological processes in aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 34, 117–129. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bettencourt, B., Talley, A., Benjamin, A. & Valentine, J. (2006). Personality and aggressive behavior under provoking and neutral conditions: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 751–777. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Blaison, C., Imhoff, R., Hühnel, I., Hess, U. & Banse, R. (2012). The affect misattribution procedure: Hot or not? Emotion, 12, 403–412. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bluemke, M. & Teige-Mocigemba, S. (2015). Automatic processes in aggression: Conceptual and assessment issues. Aggressive Behavior, 41, 44–50. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buss, A. H. & Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Crick, N. R. & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Crowne, D. P. & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • De Houwer, J., Teige-Mocigemba, S., Spruyt, A. & Moors, A. (2009). Implicit measures: A normative analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 347–368. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children’s aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162–170. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dodge, K. A. (2006). Translational science in action: Hostile attributional style and the development of aggressive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 791–814. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ferguson, C. J. & Rueda, S. M. (2009). Examining the validity of the modified Taylor competitive reaction time test of aggression. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 5, 121–135. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Fiedler, K., Nickel, S., Muehlfriedel, T. & Unkelbach, C. (2001). Is mood congruency an effect of genuine memory or response bias? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 210–214. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Gawronski, B. & De Houwer, J. (2014). Implicit measures in social and personality psychology. In H. T. ReisC. M. JuddEds., Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed., pp. 283–310). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Grimshaw, G. M., Bulman-Fleming, M. B. & Ngo, C. (2004). A signal-detection analysis of sex differences in the perception of emotional faces. Brain and Cognition, 54, 248–250. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hall, C. W. (2006). Self-reported aggression and the perception of anger in facial expression photos. Journal of Psychology, 140, 255–267. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hall, J. A. (1978). Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 845–857. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hall, J. A. & Gunnery, S. D. (2013). Gender differences in nonverbal communication. In J. A. HallM. L. KnappEds., Nonverbal communication (pp. 639–669). Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hampel, R. & Selg, H. (1998). FAF – Fragebogen zur Erfassung von Aggressivitätsfaktoren. Handanweisung [FAF – Questionnaire for the assessment of aggression factors. Manual]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Herzberg, P. Y. (2003). Faktorstruktur, Gütekriterien und Konstruktvalidität der deutschen Übersetzung des Aggressionsfragebogens von Buss und Perry [Factor structure, psychometric criteria, and construct validity of the German translation of the aggression questionnaire of Buss and Perry]. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 24, 311–323. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Heubrock, D. & Petermann, F. (2008). Kurzfragebogen zur Erfassung von Aggressivitätsfaktoren (K-FAF) [Short questionnaire for the assessment of aggression factors]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hoffmann, H., Kessler, H., Eppel, T., Rukavina, S. & Traue, H. C. (2010). Expression intensity, gender and facial emotion recognition: Women recognize only subtle facial emotions better than men. Acta Psychologica, 135, 278–283. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Huesmann, L. R. (1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schemas in the acquisition and maintenance of habitual aggressive behavior. In R. G. GeenE. DonnersteinEds., Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for policy (pp. 73–109). New York, NY: Academic Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Imhoff, R., Schmidt, A. F., Bernhardt, J., Dierksmeier, A. & Banse, R. (2011). An inkblot for sexual preference: A semantic variant of the affect misattribution procedure. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 676–690. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Inquisit. (2008). Inquisit 2.0.61004.7 [Computer software]. Seattle, WA: Millisecond Software. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • James, L. R., McIntyre, M. D., Glisson, C. A., Bowler, J. L. & Mitchell, T. R. (2004). The conditional reasoning measurement system for aggression: An overview. Human Performance, 17, 271–295. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Kirsh, S. J., Mounts, J. R. & Olczak, P. V. (2006). Violent media consumption and the recognition of dynamic facial expressions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 571–584. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knyazev, G. G., Bocharov, A. V., Slobodskaya, H. R. & Ryabichenko, T. I. (2008). Personality-linked biases in perception of emotional facial expressions. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 1093–1104. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Langner, O., Dotsch, R., Bijlstra, G., Wigboldus, D. H. J., Hawk, S. T. & van Knippenberg, A. (2010). Presentation and validation of the Radboud Faces Database. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 1377–1388. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Larkin, K. T., Martin, R. R. & McClain, S. E. (2002). Cynical hostility and the accuracy of decoding facial expressions of emotions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 285–292. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lück, H. E. & Timaeus, E. (1969). Skalen zur Messung manifester Angst (MAS) und sozialer Wünschbarkeit (SDS-E und SDS-CM) [Scales for the assessment of anxiety and social desirability]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Lundqvist, D., Flykt, A. & Öhman, A. (1998). The Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces – KDEF. Stockholm, Sweden: Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychology section, Karolinska Institutet. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Martinez, A. M. & Benavente, R. (1998, June). The AR Face Database. CVC Technical Report #24. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Nisbett, R. E. & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Orobio de Castro, B., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D. & Monshouwer, H. J. (2002). Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 73, 916–934. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Penton-Voak, I. S., Thomas, J., Gagel, S. H., McMurran, M., McDonald, S. & Munafò, M. R. (2013). Increasing recognition of happiness in ambiguous facial expressions reduces anger and aggressive behavior. Psychological Science, 24, 688–697. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Perugini, M., Richetin, J. & Zogmaister, C. (2010). Prediction of behavior. In B. GawronskiB. K. PayneEds., Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications (pp. 255–277). New York, NY: Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pollak, S. D. (2008). Mechanisms linking early experience and the emergence of emotions: Illustrations from the study of maltreated children. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 370–375. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Pollak, S. D. & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children’s recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38, 784–791. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Richetin, J. & Richardson, D. S. (2008). Automatic processes and individual differences in aggressive behavior. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 423–430. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ritter, D. & Eslea, M. (2005). Hot sauce, toy guns, and graffiti: A critical account of current laboratory aggression paradigms. Aggressive Behavior, 31, 407–419. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Sautter, K. (2013). Feind oder Freund? Zum Zusammenhang von Emotionserkennung und Aggressivität [Friend or enemy? On the relation between emotion recognition and aggressiveness]. Unpublished bachelor thesis, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schönenberg, M. & Jusyte, A. (2014). Blinded by rage? An investigation of the hostility bias towards ambiguous facial cues in antisocial violent offenders. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 264, 61–96. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stöber, J. (1999). Die Soziale-Erwünschtheits-Skala-17 (SES-17): Entwicklung und erste Befunde zu Reliabilität und Validität [The social-desirability-scale-17 (SES-17). Development and first results on reliability and validity]. Diagnostica, 45, 173–177. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Sutton, J., Smith, P. K. & Swettenham, J. (1999). Social cognition and bullying: Social inadequacy or skilled manipulation? British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17, 435–450. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tedeschi, J. & Quigley, B. (1996). Limitations of laboratory paradigms for studying aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 163–177. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Todorov, A. & Bargh, J. A. (2002). Automatic sources of aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 53–68. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tukey, J. W. (1977). Exploratory data analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Weasley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Voss, A. (2009). Motivated perception in the mood of the crowd task. Talk given at the colloquium of the department of social psychology and methodology, Institute for Psychology, University of Freiburg. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Voss, A., Leonhart, R. & Stahl, C. (2007). How to make your own response boxes: A step-by-step guide for the construction of reliable and inexpensive parallel-port response pads from computer mice. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 797–801. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wilkowski, B. M. & Robinson, M. D. (2008). The cognitive basis of trait anger and reactive aggression: An integrative analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12, 3–21. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wilkowski, B. M. & Robinson, M. D. (2010). The anatomy of anger: An integrative cognitive model of trait anger and reactive aggression. Journal of Personality, 78, 9–38. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wilkowski, B. M. & Robinson, M. D. (2012). When aggressive individuals see the world more accurately: The case of perceptual sensitivity to subtle facial expressions of anger. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 540–553. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar