Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Übersichtsarbeit

Die medikamentöse Behandlung der Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-Hyperaktivitätsstörung im Kindes- und Jugendalter mit Amphetaminpräparaten

Published Online:August 06, 2012https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000185

Abstract

Einleitung: Die wichtigsten Psychostimulanzien in der Behandlung der Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-Hyperaktivitätsstörung stellen Methylphenidat und Amphetaminsalze dar. Fragestellung: In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die pharmakologischen Charakteristika von Amphetaminpräparaten zusammengefasst. Außerdem werden die Wirksamkeit und mögliche Nebenwirkungen im Vergleich zu Methylphenidat erläutert. Methodik: Die Arbeit basiert auf einer Medline-Recherche. Eingang fanden kontrollierte Studien und Metaanalysen zwischen 1980 und 2011. Verwendete Suchwörter waren Amphetamin, Amphetaminsalze, Lisdexamphetamin, kontrollierte Studien und Metaanalysen. Ergebnisse und Diskussion: Amphetaminpräparate weisen gegenüber Methylphenidat einige pharmakologische Besonderheiten auf, indem sie neben der Dopamin-Wiederaufnahmehemmung auch die Freisetzung von Dopamin und Noradrenalin bewirken. Die klinische Wirksamkeit von Amphetaminpräparaten ist so gut wie die von Methylphenidat und das Nebenwirkungsspektrum als vergleichbar einzuschätzen. Bei ausbleibender Therapieresponse auf Methylphenidat kann vor dem Übergang auf eine Substanz zweiter Wahl durch den Einsatz eines Amphetaminpräparates die Ansprechrate auf Psychostimulanzien optimiert werden. Da potentiell bei nicht vorgeschriebener Einnahme im Erwachsenenalter eine erhöhte Missbrauchsgefahr von herkömmlichen Amphetaminpräparaten feststellbar ist, könnte darüber hinaus dem Propharmakon Lisdexamphetamin eine wichtige Bedeutung zukommen aufgrund einer robusten klinischen Wirksamkeit, eines besseren Wirkprofils und möglicherweise geringeren Missbrauchsgefahren. Schlussfolgerungen: Amphetaminpräparate sind eine wichtige Ergänzung zu Methylphenidat in der Behandlung der Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-Hyperaktivitätsstörung. Unklarheit besteht derzeit über eine differentielle Behandlungsindikation in Abhängigkeit der Symptomkonstellation und möglicher Komorbiditäten.


The medical treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with amphetamines in children and adolescents

Introduction: Psychostimulants (methylphenidate and amphetamines) are the drugs of first choice in the pharmacological treatment of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Objective: We summarize the pharmacological characteristics of amphetamines and compare them with methylphenidate, special emphasisis being given to a comparison of effects and side effects of the two substances. Finally, we analyze the abuse and addiction risks. Methods: Publications were chosen based on a Medline analysis for controlled studies and meta-analyses published between 1980 and 2011; keywords were amphetamine, amphetamine salts, lisdexamphetamine, controlled studies, and metaanalyses. Results and Discussion: Amphetamines generally exhibit some pharmacologic similarities with methylphenidate. However, besides inhibiting dopamine reuptake amphetamines also cause the release of monoamines. Moreover, plasma half-life is significantly prolonged. The clinical efficacy and tolerability of amphetamines is comparable to methylphenidate. Amphetamines can therefore be used if the individual response to methylphenidate or tolerability is insufficient before switching to a nonstimulant substance, thus improving the total response rate to psychostimulant treatment. Because of the high abuse potential of amphetamines, especially in adults, the prodrug lisdexamphetamine (Vyvanse) could become an effective treatment alternative. Available study data suggest a combination of high clinical effect size with a beneficial pharmacokinetic profile and a reduced abuse risk. Conclusions: In addition to methylphenidate, amphetamines serve as important complements in the psychostimulant treatment of ADHD. Future studies should focus on a differential comparison of the two substances with regard to their effects on different core symptom constellations and the presence of various comorbidities.

Literatur

  • Adler, L. A. , Weisler, R. H. , Goodman, D. W. , Hamdani, M. , Niebler, G. E. (2009). Short-term effects of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate on cardiovascular parameters in a 4-week clinical trial in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70, 1652–1661. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Advokat, C. (2007). Update on amphetamine neurotoxicity and its relevance to the treatment of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorder, 11, 8–16. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Ahmann, P. A. , Theye, F. W. , Berg, R. , Linquist, A. J. , Van Erem, A. J. , Campbell, L. R. (2001). Placebo-controlled evaluation of amphetamine mixture-dextroamphetamine salts and amphetamine salts (Adderall): Efficacy rate and side effects. Pediatrics, 107, E 10. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Alles, G. A. (1933). The comparative physiological actions of dl-β-Phenylisopropylamines. I. Pressor effect and toxicity. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 47, 339. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • American Academy of Pediatrics . (2001). Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Committee on Quality Improvement. Clinical practice guideline: Treatment of the school-aged child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 108, 1033–1044. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Anglin, M. D. , Burke, C. , Perrochet, B. , Stamper, E. , Dawud-Noursi, S. (2000). History of the methamphetamine problem. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32, 137–141. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Arnold, L. E. (2000). Methylphenidate vs. amphetamine: Comparative review. Journal of Attention Disorder, 3, 200–211. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Beebe, D. K. , Wally, E. (1995). Smokable methamphetamine («ice»): An old drug in a different form. American Family Physician, 51, 449–453. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Bender, L. , Cottington, F. (1942). The use of amphetamine sulphate (Benzedrine) in child Psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 99, 116–121. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Berman, S. M. , Kuczenski, R. , McCracken, J. T. , London, E. D. (2009). Potential adverse effects of amphetamine treatment on brain and behavior: A review. Molecular Psychiatry, 14, 123–142. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Biederman, J. , Boellner, S. , Childress, A. , Lopez, F. A. , Krishnan, S. , Zhang, Y. (2007). Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate and mixed amphetamine salts extended-release in children with ADHD: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover analog classroom study. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 970–976. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Biederman, J. , Krishnan, S. , Zhang, Y. , McGough, J. J. , Findling, R. L. (2007). Efficacy and tolerability of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (NRP-104) in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A phase III, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, forced-dose, parallel-group study. Clinical Therapeutics, 29, 450–463. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Biederman, J. , Lopez, F. A. , Boellner, S. W. , Chandler, M. C. (2002). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of SLI 381 (Adderall XR) in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 110, 258–266. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Blick, S. , Keating, G. M. (2007). Lisdexamfetamine. Paediatric Drugs, 9, 129–135. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Bowyer, J. F. , Holson, R. R. (1995). Methamphetamine and amphetamine neurotoxicity. In L. W. Chang, R. S. Dyer (Eds.), Handbook of neurotoxicology (pp. 845–870). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Boyle, L. , Moncrief, S. , Krishnan, S. (2006, June). Pharmacokinetics of NRP104 (lisdexamfetamine dimesylate) following administration of a single intranasal, intravenous or oral dose in rats. Paper presented at the 46th Annual New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit (NCDEU) Meeting, Boca Raton, Fla. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Briellmann, T. , Augsburger, M. , Bernhard, W. , Bovens, M. , Brehmer, C. et al. (2010). Gefährlichkeit von Methamphetamin. Stellungnahme der Sektion «Forensische Chemie und Toxikologie» der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Rechtsmedizin (SGRM). Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Rechtsmedizin, 1–7. Verfügbar unter www.sgrm.ch/uploads/media/gutachten_methamphetamin_jun2010_06.pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brown, G. L. , Hunt, R. D. , Ebert, M. H. , Bunney, Jr., W. E. , Kopin, I. J. (1979). Plasma levels of d-amphetamine in hyperactive children. Serial behaviour and motor responses. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 62, 133–140. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Castellanos, F. X. , Giedd, J. N. , Elia, J. , Marsh, W. L. , Ritchie, G. F. , Hamburger, S. D. , Rapoport, J. L. (1997). Controlled stimulant treatment of ADHD and comorbid Tourette’s syndrome: Effects of stimulant and dose. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 589–596. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Castells, X. , Ramos-Quiroga, J. A. , Bosch, R. , Nogueira, M. , Casas, M. (2011). Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults [Review]. The Cochrane Collaboration. The Cochrane Library, Issue 6. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Connell, P. H. (1958). Amphetamine psychosis. London: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Connor, D. F. , Steingard, R. J. (2004). New formulations of stimulants for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Therapeutic potential. CNS Drug, 18, 1011–1030. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Coper, H. (2000). Designer-drugs. In A. Uchtenhagen, W. Ziegelgänsberger (Hrsg.), Suchtmedizin (S. 71–74). München: Urban & Fischer. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Dowling, G. J. , Weiss, S. R. , Condon, T. P. (2008). Drugs of abuse and the aging brain. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 209–218. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Eiden, L. E. , Weihe, E. (2011). VMAT2: A dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1216, 86–98. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • El-Omar, M. M. , Ray, K. , Geary, R. (1996). Intracerebral haemorrhage in a young adult: Consider amphetamine abuse. The British Journal of Clinical Practice, 50, 115–116. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Ermer, J. C. , Dennis, K. , Haffey, M. B. , Doll, W. J. , Sandefer, E. P. , Buckwalter, M. , ... Martin, P. T. (2011). Intranasal versus oral administration of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: A randomized, open-label, two-period, crossover, single-dose, single-centre pharmacokinetic study in healthy adult men. Clinical Drug Investigation, 31, 357–370. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Faraone, S. V. (2007). Stimulant therapy in the management of ADHD: Mixed amphetamine salts (extended release). Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 9, 2127–2134. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Faraone, S. V. , Biederman, J. , Roe, C. (2002). Comparative efficacy of Adderall and methylphenidate in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22, 468–473. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Faraone, S. V. , Buitelaar, J. (2010). Comparing the efficacy of stimulants for ADHD in children and adolescents using meta-analysis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 353–364. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Faraone, S. V. , Spencer, T. J. , Kollins, S. H. , Glatt, S. J. (2010). Effects of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate treatment for ADHD on growth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 24–32. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Faraone, S. V. , Spencer, T. J. , Kollins, S. H. , Glatt, S. J. , Goodman, D. (2012). Dose response effects of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate treatment in adults with ADHD: An exploratory study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16, 118–127. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Faraone, S. V. , Wigal, S. B. , Hodgkins, P. (2007). Forecasting three-month outcomes in a laboratory school comparison of mixed amphetamine salts extended release (Adderall XR) and atomoxetine (Strattera) in school-aged children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorder, 11, 74–82. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Findling, R. L. , Childress, A. C. , Cutler, A. J. , Gasior, M. , Hamdani, M. , Ferreira-Cornwell, M. C. , Squires, L. (2011). Efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 395–405. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Fleckenstein, A. E. , Volz, T. J. , Riddle, E. L. , Gibb, J. W. , Hanson, G. R. (2007). New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 47, 681–698. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Frishman, W. H. , Del, V. A. , Sanal, S. , Ismail, A. (2003). Cardiovascular manifestations of substance abuse. Part 2: Alcohol, amphetamines, heroin, cannabis, and caffeine. Heart Disease, 5, 253–271. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Frölich, J. , Lehmkuhl, G. (2006). Epidemiologie und pathogenetische Aspekte von Substanzmissbrauch und -abhängigkeit bei ADHS. Sucht, 52, 367–375. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Gillberg, C. , Melander, H. , von Knorring, A. L. , Janols, L. O. , Thernlund, G. , Hägglöf, B. , ... Kopp, S. (1997). Long-term stimulant treatment of children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 857–864. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Glavin, G. B. (1985). Methylphenidate effects on activity-stress gastric lesions and regional brain noradrenaline metabolism in rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 23, 379–383. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Goodman, D. W. (2007). Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: The first prodrug stimulant. Psychiatry, 4. Retrieved from www.psychiatrymmc.com/Lisdexamfetamine-dimesylate-the-first-prodrug-stimulant/ First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Goodman, L. S. , Hardman, J. G. , Limbird, L. E. , Gilman, A. G. , Goodman, F. (2001). Goodman and Gilman’s pharmacological basis of therapeutics (10th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. , Scherbaum, N. (2006). Drogenabhängigkeit. In U. Vorderholzer, F. Hohagen (Hrsg.), Therapie psychischer Erkrankungen (2. Aufl., S. 44–47). München: Elsevier, Urban & Fischer. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Govitrapong, P. , Boontem, P. , Kooncumchoo, P. , Pinweha, S. , Namyen, J. , Sanvarinda, Y. , Vatanatunyakum, S. (2010). Increased blood oxidative stress in amphetamine users. Addiction Biology, 15, 100–102. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Graham, J. , Banaschewski, T. , Buitelaar, J. , Coghill, D. , Danckaerts, M. et al. (2011). European guidelines on managing adverse effects of medication for ADHD. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20, 17–37. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Grcevich, S. , Read, S. C. , Sea, D. , Mays, D. A. , Tulloch, S. J. (2004, October). Safety and efficacy of MAS XR in adolescents with ADHD. Poster präsentiert auf dem 51st Annual Meeting der American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Washington, DC. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Grcevich, S. , Rowane, W. A. , Marcellino, B. , Sullivan-Hurst, S. (1999, October). Adderall vs. methylphenidate in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Poster at ChADD (Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit Disorder), 11th International Conference on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Washington, DC. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Griffith, J. J. , Oates, J. , Cavanaugh, J. (1968). Paranoid episodes induced by drugs. Journal of American Medical Association, 205, 39. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Heishman, S. J. , Henningfield, J. E. (1991). Discriminative stimulus effect of d-amphetamine, methylphenidate, and diazepam in humans. Psychopharmacology, 103, 436–442. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hermle, L. (2009). Amphetamine. In R. Thomasius, M. Schulte-Markwort, U. J. Küstner, P. Riedesser (Hrsg.), Suchtstörungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter (S. 490–498). Stuttgart: Schattauer. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Heron, C. , Costentin, J. , Bonnet, J. J. (1994). Evidence that pure uptake inhibitors including cocaine interact slowly with the dopamine neuronal carrier. European Journal of Pharmacology, 264, 391–398. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hess, E. J. , Collins, K. A. , Wilson, M. C. (1996). Mouse model of hyperkinesis implicates SNAP-25, in behavioural regulation. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 3104–3111. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hill, K. P. , Sofuoglu, M. (2007). Biological treatments for amfetamine dependence: Recent progress. CNS Drugs, 21, 851–869. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • James, R. S. , Sharp, W. S. , Bastain, T. M. , Lee, P. P. , Walter, J. M. , Carnolewski, M. , Castellanos, F. X. (2001). Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of single-dose amphetamine formulations in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1268–1276. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Johnston, L. D. , O’Malley, P. M. , Bachman, J. G. , Schulenburg, J. E. (2007). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use. 1975–2006. Vol.I: Secondary school students. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kalant, O. J. (1966). The amphetamines: Toxicity and addiction. Springfield, IL: Thomas. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kraus, J. , Augustin, R. , Orth, B. (2005). Illegale Drogen, Einstiegsalter und Trends. Ergebnisse des Epidemiologischen Suchtsurveys 2003. Sucht, 51(Sonderheft 1), 19–28. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Krause, K. H. , Dresel, S. H. , Krause, J. , Kung, H. F. , Tatsch, K. (2000). Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography. Neuroscience Letters, 285, 107–110. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Krishnan, S. , Moncrief, S. (2007a). An evaluation of the cytochrome P450 inhibition potential of lisdexamfetamine in human liver microsomes. Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 35, 180–184. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Krishnan, S. , Moncrief, S. (2007b). Toxicity profile of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in three independent rat toxicology studies. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, 101, 231–240. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Krishnan, S. , Zhang, Y. (2008). Relative bioavailability of lisdexamfetamine 70-mg capsules in fasted and fed healthy adult volunteers and in solution: A single-dose crossover pharmacokinetic study. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 48, 293–302. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Little, K. Y. (1993). D-amphetamine versus methylphenidate effects in depressed inpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, 349–355. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Lopez, F. A. , Boellner, S. W. , Childress, A. et al. (2006, October). ADHD symptom improvement in children treatment with lisdexamfetamine dimesylate [Abstract]. Poster präsentiert auf dem Annual Meeting American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, San Diego, CA. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Madras, B. K. , Miller, G. M. , Fishman, A. J. (2005). The dopamine transporter and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1397–1409. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Manos, M. J. , Short, E. J. , Findling, R. L. (1999). Differential effectiveness of methylphenidate and Adderall in school-age youths with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 813–819. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • McCracken, J. T. , Biederman, J. , Greenhill, L. L. , Swanson, J. M. , McGough, J. J. , Spencer, T. J. , ... Tulloch, S. (2003). Analog classroom assessment of a once-daily mixed amphetamine formulation, SL1381 (Adderall XR), in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 673–683. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • McGough, J. J. , Biederman, J. , Wigal, S. B. , Lopez, F. A. , McCracken, J. T. , Spencer, T. , ... Tulloch, S. J. (2005). Long-term tolerability and effectiveness of once-daily mixed amphetamine salts (Adderall XR) in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 530–538. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • National Drug Intelligence Center . (2009). Legitimate distribution of CPDs. National Prescription Drug Threat Assessment, 1–4. Retrieved from www.justice.gov/ndic/pubs33/33775/distribution.htm First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence – NICE . (2009). Methylphenidate, atomoxetine and dexamfetamine for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents (review from 2006). London: Author. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • National Toxicology Program . (2005). NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of amphetamines. Report no. 16. Retrieved from cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/stimulants/amphetamines/AmphetamineMonograph.pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • NIDA – National Institute on Drug Abuse . (2009). Stimulant ADHD medications: Methylphenidate and amphetamines. Infofacts, 1–4. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pelham, W. E. , Aronoff, H. R. , Midlam, J. K. , Shapiro, C. J. , Gnagy, E. M. , Chronis, A. M. , ... Waxmonsky, J. (1999). A comparison of Ritalin and Adderall: Efficacy and time-course in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 103, E 43. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pelham, W. E. , Gnagy, E. M. , Chronis, A. M. , Burrows-MacLean, L. , Fabiano, G. A. et al. (1999). A comparison of morning-only and morning/late afternoon Adderall to morning-only, twice-daily, and three times-daily methylphenidate in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 104, 1300–1301. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Pliszka, S. R. , Browne, R. G. , Olvera, R. L. , Wynne, S. K. (2000). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Adderall and methylphenidate in the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 619–626. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Pliszka, S. R. , Browne, R. G. , Wynne, S. K. , Olvera, R. L. (1999, November). Comparing Adderall and methylphenidate in ADHD. Poster at U. S. Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress, Atlanta, GA. (Also presented at Annual Meeting of American Psychiatric Association, May 1999). First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pliszka, S. R. , Matthews, T. L. , Braslow, K. J. , Watson, M. A. (2006). Comparative effects of methylphenidate and mixed salts amphetamine on height and weight in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 520–526. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Poulin, C. (2001). Medical and nonmedical stimulant use among adolescents: From sanctioned to unsanctioned use. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 165, 1039–1044. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rothman, R. B. , Baumann, M. H. (2002). Therapeutic and adverse actions of serotonin transporter substrates. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 95, 73–88. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Sato, M. A. (1992). Lasting vulnerability to psychosis in patients with previous methamphetamine psychosis. Annual N Y Academic Science, 654, 160–170. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Segal, D. S. , Kuczenski, R. (1999). Escalating dose-binge treatment with methylphenidate: Role of serotonin in the emergent behavioral profile. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 291, 19–30. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Seiden, L. S. , Sabol, K. E. (1995). Neurotoxity of methamphetamine-related drugs and cocaine. In L. W. Chang, R. S. Dyer (Eds.), Handbook of neurotoxicology (pp. 825–843). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Shaw, P. , Sharp, W. S. , Morrison, M. , Eckstrand, K. , Greenstein, D. K. , Clasen, L. S. , ... Rapoport, J. L. (2009). Psychostimulant treatment and the developing cortex in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 58–63. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Spencer, T. , Biederman, J. , Wilens, T. , Faraone, S. , Prince, J. , Gerard, K. et al. (2001). Efficacy of a mixed amphetamine salts compound in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 775–782. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Spencer, T. J. , Wilens, T. E. , Biederman, J. , Weisler, R. H. , Read, S. C. , Pratt, R. (2006). Efficacy and safety of mixed amphetamine salts extended release (Adderall XR) in the management of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adolescent patients: A 4-week, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Clinical Therapy, 28, 266–279. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Stein, M. A. , Waldman, I. D. , Charney, E. , Aryal, S. , Sable, C. , Gruber, R. , Newcorn, J. H. (2011). Dose effects and comparative effectiveness of extended release dexmethylphenidate and mixed amphetamine salts. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 21, 581–588. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Swanson, J. M. , Wigal, S. , Greenhill, L. , Browne, R. , Waslik, B. , Lerner, M. , ... Cantwell, D. P. (1998). Analog classroom assessment of Adderall in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 519–526. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Tata, D. A. , Yamamoto, B. K. (2007). Interactions between methamphetamine and environmental stress: Role of oxidative stress, glutamate and mitochondrial dysfunction. Addiction, 102(Suppl. 1), 49–60. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Taylor, E. , Döpfner, M. , Sergeant, J. , Asherson, P. , Banaschewski, T. , Buitelaar, J. et al. (2004). European clinical guidelines for hyperkinetic disorder – first upgrade. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13(Suppl. 1), 17–30. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Thorpy, M. (2007). Therapeutic advances in narcolepsy. Sleep Medical, 8, 427–440. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • U. S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA Congressional Testimony), & Woodworth, T. (2000). Statement before the Committee on Education and the Workforce: Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Youth and Families. May 16. Retrieved from www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/cngrtest/ct051600.htm First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Volkow, N. D. , Wang, G. J. , Fowler, J. S. , Logan, J. , Schlyer, D. , Hitzemann, R. , ... MacGregor, R. (1994). Imaging endogenous dopamine competition with [11C]raclopride in the human brain. Synapse, 16, 255–262. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Vyvanse Prescription Information . (2012). Retrieved from www.vyvanse.com/pdf/prescribing_information.pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Walitza, S. , Romanos, M. , Seifert, J. , Warnke, A. , Gerlach, M. (2009). Psychostimulanzien. In M. Gerlach, C. Mehler-Wex, S. Walitza, A . Warnke, C. Wewetzer (Hrsg.), Neuro-Psychopharmaka im Kindes- und Jugendalter (2. Aufl., S. 289–318). Wien: Springer. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Westover, A. N. , McBride, S. , Haley, R. W. (2007). Stroke in young adults who abuse amphetamines or cocaine: A population-based study of hospitalized patient. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 495–502. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Westover, A. N. , Nakonezny, P. A. (2010). Aortic dissection in young adults who abuse amphetamines. American Heart Journal, 160, 315–321. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Westover, A. N. , Nakonezny, P. A. , Haley, R. W. (2008). Acute myocardial infarction in young adults who abuse amphetamines. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96, 49–56. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Wigal, S. B. , Jun, A. , Wong, A. A. , Stehli, A. , Steinberg-Epstein, R. , Lerner, M. A. (2010). Does prior exposure to stimulants in children with ADHD impact cardiovascular parameters from lisdexamfetamine dimesylate? Postgraduate Medicine, 122, 27–34. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Wigal, S. B. , McGough, J. J. , McCracken, J. T. (2005). A laboratory school comparison of mixed amphetamine salts extended release (Adderall XR) and atomoxetine (Strattera) in school-aged children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Attention Disorder, 9, 275–289. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Wilens, T. E. , Adler, L. A. , Adams, J. , Sgambati, S. , Rotrosen, J. , Sawtelle, R. et al. (2008). Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: A systematic review of the literature [Review]. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 21–31. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Winterstein, A. G. , Gerhard, T. , Shuster, J. , Saidi, A. (2009). Cardiac safety of methylphenidate versus amphetamine salts in the treatment of ADHD. Pediatrics, 124, e75–80. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Yuan, J. , McCann, U. , Ricaurte, G. (1997). Methylphenidate and brain dopamine neurotoxicity. Brain Research, 767, 172–175. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Yui, K. , Goto, K. , Ikemoto, S. , Ishiguro, T. (2000). Stress induced spontaneous recurrence of methamphetamine psychosis: The relation between stressful experiences and sensitivity to stress. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 58(1), 67–75. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Zuddas, A. (2010). Pharmacological treatments. In T. Banaschewski, D. Coghill, M. Danckaerts, M. Döpfner, L. Rohde, J. A. Sergeant, ... A. Zuddas (Hrsg.), ADHD and hyperkinetic disorder (S. 53–76). Oxford: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar