The Four-States Model of Memory Retrieval Experiences
Abstract
Abstract. A memory measurement model is presented that accounts for judgments of remembering, knowing, and guessing in old-new recognition tasks by assuming four disjoint latent memory states: recollection, familiarity, uncertainty, and rejection. This four-states model can be applied to both Tulving's (1985) remember-know procedure (RK version) and Gardiner and coworker's (Gardiner, Java, & Richardson-Klavehn, 1996; Gardiner, Richardson-Klavehn, & Ramponi, 1997) remember-know-guess procedure (RKG version). It is shown that the RK version of the model fits remember-know data approximately as well as the one-dimensional signal detection model does. In contrast, the RKG version of the four-states model outperforms the corresponding detection model even if unequal variances for old and new items are allowed for.We show empirically that the two versions of the four-statesmodelmeasure the same state probabilities. However, the RKG version, requiring remember-know-guess judgments, provides parameter estimates with smaller standard errors and is therefore recommended for routine use.
References
Batchelder, W.H. Riefer, D.M. (1999). Theoretical and empirical review of multinomial process tree modeling. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 57– 86Bayen, U.J. Murnane, K. Erdfelder, E. (1996). Source discrimination, item detection, and multinomial models of source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 197– 215Buchner, A. Erdfelder, E. Vaterrodt-Plünnecke, B. (1995). Toward unbiased measurement of conscious and unconscious memory processes within the process dissociation framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 137– 160Diana, R.A. Reder, L.M. Arndt, J. Park, H. (2006). Models of recognition: A review of arguments in favor of a dual-process account. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 13, 1– 21Donaldson, W. (1996). The role of decision processes in remembering and knowing. Memory and Cognition, 24, 523– 533Dunn, J.C. (2004). Remember-know: A matter of confidence. Psychological Review, 111, 524– 542Erdfelder, E. (2000). Multinomiale Modelle in der Kognitiven Psychologie . [Multinomial models in cognitive psychology]. Unpublished habilitation thesis, Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn, GermanyErdfelder, E. Bayen, U.J. (November 2002). The four-states model of memory retrieval experiences. Talk presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society in Kansas City, MO Abstracts of the Psychonomic Society, 7, 53–Erdfelder, E. Buchner, A. (1998a). Decomposing the hindsight bias: A multinomial processing tree model for separating recollection and reconstruction in hindsight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 387– 414Erdfelder, E. Buchner, A. (1998b). Process-dissociation measurement models: Threshold theory or detection theory?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 83– 97Erdfelder, E. Buchner, A. (2003). Prozessdissoziationsprozedur: Quo vadis? [Process dissociation procedure: Quo vadis?]. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 211, 17– 25Faul, F. Erdfelder, E. Lang, A.-G. Buchner, A. in press G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods,Gardiner, J.M. (1988). Functional aspects of recollective experience. Memory and Cognition, 16, 309– 313Gardiner, J.M. Gregg, V.H. Karayianni, I. (2006). Recognition memory and awareness: Occurrence of perceptual effects in remembering or in knowing depends on conscious resources at encoding, but not at retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 34, 227– 239Gardiner, J.M. Java, R.I. Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1996). How level of processing really influences awareness in recognition memory. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50, 114– 122Gardiner, J.M. Konstantinou, I. Karayianni, I. Gregg, V.H. (2005). Memory awareness following speeded compared with unspeeded picture recognition. Experimental Psychology, 52, 140– 149Gardiner, J.M. Richardson-Klavehn, A. Ramponi, C. (1997). On reporting recollective experiences and “direct access to memory systems”. Psychological Science, 8, 391– 394Gardiner, J.M. Richardson-Klavehn, A. Ramponi, C. (1998). Limitations of the signal detection model of the remember-know paradigm: A reply to Hirshman. Consciousness and Cognition, 7, 285– 288Hicks, J.L. Marsh, R.L. (1999). Remember-know judgments can depend on how memory is tested. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 117– 122Hirshman, E. Henzler, A. (1998). The role of decision processes in conscious recollection. Psychological Science, 9, 61– 65Hirshman, E. Master, S. (1997). Modeling the conscious correlates of recognition memory: Reflections on the remember-know paradigm. Memory and Cognition, 25, 345– 351Hu, X. Batchelder, W.H. (1994). The statistical analysis of general processing tree models with the EM algorithm. Psychometrika, 59, 21– 47Hu, X. Phillips, G.A. (1999). GPT.EXE: A powerful tool for the visualization and analysis of general processing tree models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 31, 220– 234Inoue, C. Bellezza, F.S. (1998). The detection model of recognition using know and remember judgments. Memory and Cognition, 26, 299– 308Klauer, K.C. Stahl, C. Erdfelder, E. in press The abstract selection task: New data and an almost comprehensive model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,Klauer, K.C. Wegener, I. (1998). Unraveling social categorization in the “Who said what?” paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1155– 1178Lord, F.M. Novick, M.R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores . Oxford: Addison-WesleyMeiser, T. Bröder, A. (2002). Memory for multidimensional source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 116– 137Nega, C. (2005). Percepstual effects and recollective experience in face recognition. Experimental Psychology, 52, 224– 231Rajaram, S. (1993). Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past. Memory and Cognition, 21, 89– 102Ramponi, C. Barnard, P.J. Nimmo-Smith, I. (2004). Recollection deficits in dysphoric mood: An effect of schematic models and executive mode?. Memory, 12, 655– 670Rotello, C.M. Macmillan, N.A. Reeder, J.A. (2004). Sum-difference theory of remembering and knowing: A two-dimensional signal-detection model. Psychological Review, 111, 588– 616Rothkegel, R. (1999). AppleTree: A multinomial processing tree modeling program for Macintosh computers. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 31, 696– 700Schwartz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of statistics, 6, 461– 464Smith, R.E. Bayen, U.J. (2005). The effects of working memory resource availability on prospective memory. A formal modeling approach. Experimental Psychology, 52, 243– 256Snodgrass, J.G. Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 34– 50Stahl, C. Degner, J. (2007). Assessing automatic activation of valence. A multinomial model of EAST performance. Experimental Psychology, 54, 99– 112Stahl, C. Klauer, K.C. in press HMMTree: A computer program for latent-class hierarchical multinomial processing tree models. Behavior Research Methods,Steffens, M.C. Buchner, A. Martensen, H. Erdfelder, E. (2000). Further evidence on the similarity of memory processes in the process dissociation procedure and in source monitoring. Memory and Cognition, 28, 1152– 1164Strack, F. Bless, H. (1994). Memory for nonoccurrences: Metacognitive and presuppositional strategies. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 203– 217Strack, F. Förster, J. (1995). Reporting recollective experiences: Direct access to memory systems?. Psychological Science, 6, 352– 358Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology, 26, 1– 12Wixted, J.T. (2007). Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory. Psychological Review, 114, 152– 176Wixted, J.T. Stretch, V. (2004). In defense of the signal detection interpretation of remember/know judgments. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 11, 616– 641Xu, M. Bellezza, F. (2001). A comparison of the multimemory and detection theories of know and remember recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1197– 1210
