Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between the Big Five and Academic Success at University
Abstract
Abstract. Interest in the prediction of academic success in higher education has grown considerably in recent years in German-speaking countries. While the validity of school grades and admission tests has been investigated by meta-analyses and large-scale studies at least in the United States, less is known about noncognitive predictors of academic success. The present meta-analysis investigates the impact of the Big Five personality factors on academic success at university. A total of 258 correlation coefficients from 58 studies published since 1980 were included. Grades, retention, and satisfaction served as success criteria. Correlations were corrected for attenuation caused by measurement error. Results show that the influence of personality traits on academic achievement depends on the success criterion. While Neuroticism is related to academic satisfaction (? = -.369, k = 8), Conscientiousness correlates with grades (? = .269, k = 41). Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Agreeableness have no significant impact on academic success. Moderator analyses suggest effects of culture for the validity of Extraversion. Parallels to validity for job performance are identified and implications for admission and counseling of students are discussed.
References marked with an asterisk (*) indicate studies included in the meta-analysis (see Table 1).
References
*Barchard, K.A. (2003). Does emotional intelligence assist in the prediction of academic success?. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 840– 858 .*Bauer, K.W. , Liang, Q. (2003). The effect of personality and precollege characteristics on first-year activities and academic performance. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 277– 290 .Barrick, M.R. , Mount, M.K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1– 26 .Barrick, M.R. , Mount, M.K. , Judge, T.A. (2001). Personality and performance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go next?. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 9– 30 .Bobko, P. , Roth, P.L. , Potosky, D. (1999). Derivation and implications of a meta-analytic matrix incorporating cognitive ability, alternative predictors, and job performance. Personnel Psychology, 52, 561– 589 .*Brandstätter, H. , Farthofer, A. (2002). Studienerfolgsprognose - konfigurativ oder linear additiv?. [Prediction of academic success - Configurative or linearly additive?] Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 23, 381– 391 .Burton, N.W. , Ramist, L. (2001). Predicting success in college: SAT studies of classes graduating since 1980 . The College Board Research Report, 2001-2002. New York: College entrance Examination Board .*Busato, V.V. , Prins, F.J. , Elshout, J.J. , Hamaker, C. (2000). Intellectual ability, learning style, personality, achievement motivation, and academic success of psychology students in higher education. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1057– 1068 .Camara, W.J. (2005). Broadening criteria of college success and the impact of cognitive predictors. In W.J. Camara & E.W. Kimmel (Eds.), Choosing students: Higher education admissions tools for the 21st century (pp. 53-79). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .Cattell, R.B. , Eber, H.W. , Tatsuoka, M.M. (1970). Handbook for the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) . Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing .*Chamorro-Premuzic, T. , Furnham, A. (2003a). Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 319– 338 .*Chamorro-Premuzic, T. , Furnham, A. (2003b). Personality traits and academic examination performance. European Journal of Personality, 17, 237– 250 .*Colquitt, J.A. , Simmering, M.J. (1998). Conscientiousness, goal orientation, and motivation to learn during the learning process: A longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 654– 665 .Conard, M.A. (2006). Aptitude is not enough: How personality and behavior predict academic performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 339– 346 .Costa, P.T. , McCrae, R.R. (1991). The NEO Five Factor Inventory . Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources .Costa, P.T. , McCrae, R.R. (1992a). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 653– 665 .Costa, P.T. , McCrae, R.R. (1992b). Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five Factor Inventory Professional manual . Odessa; FL: Psychological Assessment Resources .*De Fruyt, F. , Mervielde, I. (1996). Personality and interests as predictors of educational streaming and achievement. European Journal of Personality, 10, 405– 425 .DeNeve, K.M. , Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 197– 229 .De Raad, B. , Schouwenburg, H.C. (1996). Personality in learning and education: A review. European Journal of Personality, 10, 303– 336 .Digman, J.M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417– 440 .*Diseth, A. (2003). Personality and approaches to learning as predictors of academic achievement. European Journal of Personality, 17, 143– 155 .*Dollinger, S.J. , Orf, L.A. (1991). Personality and performance in “personality”: Conscientiousness and openness. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 276– 284 .Dudley, N.M. , Orvis, K.A. , Lebiecki, J.E. , Cortina, J.M. (2006). A meta-analytic investigation of Conscientiousness in the prediction of job performance: Examining the intercorrelations and the incremental validity of narrow traits. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 40– 57 .*Duff, A. , Boyle, E. , Dunleavy, K. , Ferguson, J. (2004). The relationship between personality, approach to learning, and academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1907– 1920 .*Dyer, E.D. (1987). Can university success and first-year job performance be predicted from academic achievement, vocational interest, personality, and biographical measures?. Psychological Reports, 61, 655– 671 .*Edwards, W.R. , Schleicher, D.J. (2004). On selecting psychology graduate students: Validity evidence for a test of tacit knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 592– 602 .Enright, M.K. , Gitomer, D. (1989). Toward a description of successful graduate students . Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service .Eysenck, H.J. , Eysenck, S.B.G. (1968). The manual to the Eysenck Personality Inventory . San Diego: California .Eysenck, H.J. , Eysenck, S.B.G. (1975). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire manual . London: Hodder & Stoughton .*Farsides, T. , Woodfield, R. (2003). Individual differences and undergraduate academic success: The roles of personality, intelligence, and application. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 1225– 1243 .*Ferguson, E. , James, D. , O'Hehir, F. , Sanders, A. (2003). Pilot study of the roles of personality, references, and personal statements in relation to performance over the 5 years of a medical degree. British Medical Journal, 326, 429– 431 .Fleenor, J.W. , Eastman, K. (1997). The relationship between the five-factor model of personality and the California Psychological Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57, 698– 703 .*Furnham, A. , Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2004). Personality and intelligence as predictors of statistics examination grades. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 943– 955 .*Furnham, A. , Chamorro-Premuzic, T. , McDougall, F. (2002). Personality, cognitive ability, and beliefs about intelligence as predictors of academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 14, 47– 64 .*Furnham, A. , Mitchell, J. (1991). Personality, needs, social skills, and academic achievement: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1067– 1073 .*Gakhar, S.C. (1986). Intellectual and personality correlates of academic achievement of college students undertaking different courses. Indian Psychological Review, 30, 9– 16 .*Giesen, H. , Gold, A. , Hummer, A. , Jansen, R. (1986). Prognose des Studienerfolgs . [Prediction of academic success]. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Pädagogische Psychologie .*Goff, M. , Ackerman, P.L. (1992). Personality-intelligence relations: Assessment of typical intellectual engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 537– 552 .Goldberg, L.R. (2001, June). Frozen by success: Why we don't know nearly enough about the relations between personality attributes and academic performance . Remarks delivered at the E.T.S. Workshop: Applications to new constructs, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ .Goldberg, L.R. , Johnson, J.A. , Eber, H.W. , Hogan, R. , Ashton, M.C. , Cloninger, C.R. , et al. (2006). The International Personality Item Pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 84– 96 .Gough, H.G. (1975). California Psychological Inventory (CPI): Manual . Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc .*Gough, H.G. , Lanning, K. (1986). Predicting grades in college from the California Psychological Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 46, 205– 213 .*Gray, E.K. , Watson, D. (2002). General and specific traits of personality and their relation to sleep and academic performance. Journal of Personality, 70, 177– 206 .Griffin, B. , Hesketh, B. (2004). Why Openness to Experience is not a good predictor of job performance. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12, 243– 251 .Hell, B. , Trapmann, S. , Schuler, H. (2007). Eine Metaanalyse der Validität von fachspezifischen Studierfähigkeitstests im deutschsprachigen Raum. [A meta-analytic investigation of subject-specific admission tests in German-speaking countries] Empirische Pädagogik, 21, 251– 270 .Hell, B. , Trapmann, S. , Weigand, S. , Schuler, H. (2007). Die Validität von Auswahlgesprächen im Rahmen der Hochschulzulassung - eine Metaanalyse. [The validity of admission interviews - A meta-analysis] Psychologische Rundschau, 58, 93– 102 .Hogan, R. (1986). Hogan Personality Inventory . Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems .*Hörschgen, H. , Cierpka, R. , Friese, M. , Steinbach, R. (1993). Erfolg im Studium und Beruf. [Academic and occupational success]. Universität Hohenheim - Institut für Betriebswirtschaftslehre .*Hough, L.M. (1992). The Big Five personality variables - Construct confusions: Description versus prediction. Human Performance, 5, 139– 155 .Hough, L.M. , Ones, D.S. (2002). The structure, measurement, validity, and use of personality variables in industrial, work, and organizational psychology. In N. Anderson, D.S. Ones, H.K. Sinangil, & C. Viswesvaran (Eds), Handbook of industrial, work, and organizational psychology, Volume 1: Personnel psychology (pp. 233-277). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Ltd .Hunter, J.E. , Schmidt, F.L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis - Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .Hunter, J.E. , Schmidt, F.L. , Jackson, G.B. (1982). Meta-analysis: Cumulating research findings across studies . London: Sage .*Huq, M. , Rabman, M.M. , Mahmud, S.H. (1986). Role of neuroticism, psychoticism, and extraversion in academic achievement. Asian Journal of Psychology and Education, 17, 1– 6 .James, L.R. (1998). Measurement of personality via conditional reasoning. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 131– 163 .Judge, T.A. , Heller, D. , Mount, M.K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 530– 541 .*Kahn, J.H. , Nauta, M.M. , Gailbreath, R.D. , Tipps, J. , Chartrand, J.M. (2002). The utility of career and personality assessment in predicting academic progress. Journal of Career Assessment, 10, 3– 23 .*Kalsbeek, D. (2003). Campus retention: The MBTI in institutional self-studies. In J. Provost & S. Anchors (Eds.), Using the MBIT instrument in colleges and universities (pp. 87-122). Gainesville: Center for Applications of Psychological Type .*King, A.R. , Bailly, M.D. (2002). MMPI-2 predictors of academic performance. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 20, 258– 267 .Kuncel, N.R. , Hezlett, S.A. , Ones, D.S. (2001). A comprehensive meta-analysis of the predictive validity of the graduate record examinations: Implications for graduate student selection and performance. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 162– 181 .Kuncel, N.R. , Hezlett, S.A. , Ones, D.S. (2004). Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct predict them all?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 148– 161 .Kyllonen, P.C. , Walters, A.M. , Kaufman, J.C. (2005). Noncognitive constructs and their assessment in graduate education: A review. Educational Assessment, 10, 153– 184 .*Lipton, A. , Huxham, J. , Hamilton, D. (1984). Predictors of success in a cohort of medical students. Medical Education, 18, 203– 210 .*Lounsbury, J.W. , Sundstrom, E. , Loveland, J.M. , Gibson, L.W. (2003). Intelligence, Big Five personality traits, and work drive as predictors of course grade. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1231– 1239 .*Lufi, D. , Parish-Plass, J. , Cohen, A. (2003). Persistence in higher education and its relationship to other personality variables. College Student Journal, 37, 50– 59 .*McCabe, R.E. , Blankstein, K.R. , Mills, J.S. (1999). Interpersonal sensitivity and social problem-solving: Relations with academic and social self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and academic performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 23, 587– 604 .McCrae, R.R. , Costa, P.T. Jr. (1994). The stability of personality: Observations and evaluations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3, 173– 175 .*McIlroy, D. , Bunting, B. (2002). Personality, behavior, and academic achievement: Principles for educators to inculcate and students to model. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 326– 337 .*McKenzie, J. (1989). Neuroticism and academic achievement: The Furneaux Factor. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 509– 515 .*McKenzie, J. , Taghavi-Khonsary, M. , Tindell, G. (2000). Neuroticism and academic achievement: The Furneaux Factor as a measure of academic rigor. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 3– 11 .*McKenzie, J. , Tindell, G. (1993). Anxiety and academic achievement: Further Furneaux Factor findings. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 609– 617 .*McKenzie, K. , Gow, K. (2004). Exploring the first year academic achievement of school leavers and mature-age students through structural equation modeling. Learning and Individual Differences, 14, 107– 123 .*Mehta, P. , Kumar, D. (1985). Relationships of academic achievement with intelligence, personality, adjustment, study habits, and academic motivation. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 1, 57– 68 .*Mendoza, J.L. , Reinhardt, R.N. (1991). Validity generalization procedures using sample-based estimates: A comparison of six procedures. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 596– 610 .*Mershon, B. , Gorsuch, R.L. (1988). Number of factors in the personality sphere: Does increase in factors increase predictability of real-life criteria?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 675– 680 .*Moon, S.M. , Illingworth, A.J. (2005). Exploring the dynamic nature of procrastination: A latent growth curve analysis of academic procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 297– 309 .*Morris, L.W. , Carden, R.L. (1981). Relationship between locus of control and extraversion-introversion in predicting academic behavior. Psychological Reports, 48, 799– 806 .Mount, M.K. , Barrick, M.R. , Strauss, J.P. (1999). The joint relationship of conscientiousness and ability with performance: Test of the interaction hypothesis. Journal of Management, 25, 707– 721 .*Murtha, T.C. , Kanfer, R. , Ackerman, P.L. (1996). Toward an interactionist taxonomy of personality and situations: An integrative situational- dispositional representation of personality traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 193– 207 .*Musgrave-Marquart, D. , Bromley, S.P. , Dalley, M.B. (1997). Personality, academic attribution, and substance use as predictors of academic achievement in college students. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 12, 501– 511 .*Nath, L.M. (1987). Role of personality and interest for students' success in medical course. Psychological Research Journal, 11, 54– 63 .Novy, D.M. , Kopel, K.F. , Swank, P.R. (1996). Psychometrics of oral examinations for psychology licensure: The Texas examination as an example. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 27, 415– 417 .*Okun, M.A. , Finch, J.F. (1998). The Big Five personality dimensions and the process of institutional departure. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 233– 256 .Ones, D.S. , Viswesvaran, C. (1998). The effects of social desirability and faking on personality and integrity assessment for personnel selection. Human Performance, 11, 245– 269 .*Oosthuizen, S. (1990). Graphology as predictor of academic achievement. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 715– 721 .Organ, D.W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome . Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company .Ortner, T.M. , Kubinger, K.D. , Schrott, A. , Radinger, R. , Litzenberger, M. (2006). Belastbarkeits-Assessment: computerisierte Objektive Persönlichkeits-Testbatterie - Deutsch (BAcO-D) . [Assessment of Resilience: Computer-based objective personality test - German]. Test: Software und Manual. Frankfurt/M.: Harcourt Test Services .Ostendorf, F. , Angleitner, A. (2004). NEO-Persönlichkeitsinventar nach Costa & McCrae . [NEO Personality Inventory according to Costa & McCrae]. Göttingen: Hogrefe .*Oswald, F.L. , Schmitt, N. , Kim, B.H. , Ramsay, L.J. , Gillespie, M.A. (2004). Developing a biodata measure and situational judgment inventory as predictors of college student performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 187– 207 .*Paunonen, S.V. , Ashton, M.C. (2001). Big Five predictors of academic achievement. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 78– 90 .*Peeters, H. , Lievens, F. (2005). Situational judgment tests and their predictiveness of college students' success: The influence of faking. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65, 70– 89 .*Peng, R. , Khaw, H.H. , Edariah, A.B. (1995). Personality and performance of preclinical medical students. Medical Education, 29, 283– 288 .Potosky, D. , Bobko, P. , Roth, P.L. (2005). Forming composites of cognitive ability and alternative measures to predict job performance and reduce adverse impact: Corrected estimates and realistic expectations. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13, 304– 315 .Raju, N.S. , Fleer, P.F. (2003). VG2M: A computer program for conducting validity generalization analysis . Chicago, IL: Illinois Institute of Technology .Raju, N.S. , Burke, M.J. , Normand, J. , Langlois, G.M. (1991). A new meta-analytic approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 432– 446 .Reilly, R.R. (1976). Factors in graduate student performance. American Educational Research Journal, 13, 125– 138 .*Ridgell, S.D. , Lounsbury, J.W. (2004). Predicting academic success: General intelligence, Big Five personality traits, and work drive. College Student Journal, 38, 607– 619 .Robbins, S.B. , Lauver, K. , Le, H. , Davis, D. , Langley, R. , Carlstrom, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 261– 288 .Roberts, B.W. , DelVecchio, W.F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3– 25 .Rossier, J. , Meyer de Stadelhofen, F. , Berthoud, S. (2004). The hierarchical structures of the NEO-PI-R and the 16PF5. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20, 27– 38 .*Rothstein, M.G. , Paunonen, S.V. , Rush, J.C. , King, G.A. (1994). Personality and cognitive ability predictors of performance in graduate business school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 516– 530 .Salgado, J.F. (1997). The five, factor model of personality and job performance in the European Community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 30– 43 .*Schmidt-Atzert, L. (2005). Prädiktion von Studienerfolg bei Psychologiestudenten. [Prediction of academic success in psychology students] Psychologische Rundschau, 56, 131– 133 .Schmidt-Atzert, L. (2004). Objektiver Leistungsmotivations-Test OLMT . [Objective Achievement-Motivation-Test OLMT]. Mödling: Schuhfried .Schmidt, F.L. , Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262– 274 .Schmidt, F.L. , Le, H. (2004). Software for the Hunter-Schmidt meta-analysis methods . University of Iowa, Department of Management and Organization, Iowa City, IA .Schuler, H. (2000). Das Rätsel der Merkmals-Methoden-Effekte: Was ist “Potential” und wie läßt es sich messen?. [The riddle of trait-method-effects: What is “potential” and how to measure it?] In L. von Rosenstiel & T. Lang-von Wins (Eds.), Perspektiven der Potentialbeurteilung [Perspectives on the assessment of potentials] (pp. 27-71). Göttingen: Hogrefe .Schuler, H. , Funke, U. , Baron-Boldt, J. (1990). Predictive validity of school grades: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 39, 89– 103 .Schulze, R. (2004). Meta-analysis: A comparison of approaches . Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe & Huber .*Schurr, K.T. , Ruble, V.E. , Palomba, C. , Pickerill, B. , Moore, D. (1997). Relationships between the MBTI and selected aspects of Tinto's model for college attrition. Journal of Psychological Type, 40, 31– 42 .Seipp, B. (1991). Anxiety and academic performance: A meta-analysis of findings. Anxiety Research, 4, 27– 41 .Spearman, C. (1927). Abilities of man . London: Macmillan .Steers, R.M. , Braunstein, D.L. (1976). A behaviorally based measure of manifest needs in work settings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 251– 266 .Taber, T.D. , Hackman, J.D. (1976). Dimensions of undergraduate college performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 546– 558 .Tett, R.P. , Jackson, D.N. , Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of job performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703– 742 .Trapmann, S. (2007). Mehrdimensionale Studienerfolgsprognose: Die Bedeutung kognitiver, temperamentsbedingter und motivationaler Prädiktoren für verschiedene Erfolgskriterien des Studienerfolgs . [Multidimensional prediction of academic achievement: The impact of cognitive and noncognitive predictors for different kinds of success criteria]. Dissertation in preparation, University of Hohenheim .Trapmann, S. , Hell, B. , Hirn, J.-O.W. , Weigand, S. , Schuler, H. (2005, September). Psychologische Konstrukte als Prädiktoren des Studienerfolgs - eine Metaanalyse . [Psychological constructs as predictors of academic success - A meta-analysis]. Vortrag auf der 8. Arbeitstagung der Fachgruppe Differentielle Psychologie, Persönlichkeitspsychologie und Psychologische Diagnostik der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Marburg. [Paper presented at the 8th Conference of the Department of Psychology of Individual Differences and Psychological Assessment of the German Society of Psychology in Marburg] .Trapmann, S. , Hell, B. , Weigand, S. , Schuler, H. (2007). Die Validität von Schulnoten zur Vorhersage des Studienerfolgs - eine Metaanalyse. [The validity of high-school grades for academic achievement - A meta-analysis] Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 21, 11– 27 .*Tross, S.A. , Harper, J.P. , Osher, L.W. , Kneidinger, L.M (2000). Not just the usual cast of characters: Using personality to predict college performance and retention. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 323– 334 .Tsabari, O. , Tziner, A. , Meir, E.I. (2004). Updated meta-analysis on the relationship between congruence and satisfaction. Journal of Career Assessment, 13, 216– 232 .*Tutton, P.J. (1996). Psychometric test results associated with high achievement in basic science components of a medical curriculum. Academic Medicine, 71, 181– 186 .*Upmanyu, V.V. , Upmanyu, S. , Vasudeva, P.N. (1980). Factor analytical study of measures of anxiety, neuroticism, psychoticism, intelligence, and academic achievement. Psychological Studies, 25, 90– 97 .Viswesvaran, C. , Ones, D.S. (2000). Measurement error in Big Five factors personality assessment: Reliability generalization across studies and measures. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 224– 235 .*Watkins, D. , Astilla, E. (1980). Intellective and nonintellective predictors of academic achievement at a Filipino university. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 40, 245– 249 .Wass, V. , Wakeford, R. , Neighbor, R. , Van der Vleuten, C. (2003). Achieving acceptable reliability in oral examinations: An analysis of the Royal College of General Practitioners membership examination's oral component. Medical Education, 37, 126– 131 .*Watson, D. , Clark, L.A. (1993). Behavioral disinhibition versus constraint: A dispositional perspective. In D.M. Wegner & J.W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 506-527). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc .Willingham, W.W. (1985). Success in college: The role of personal qualities and academic ability . New York: College Entrance Examination Board .*Wolfe, R.N. , Johnson, S.D. (1995). Personality as a predictor of college performance. Educational & Psychological Measurement, 55, 177– 185 .