Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Research Trends

Serious Suicide Attempts

Toward an Integration of Terms and Definitions

Published Online:June 01, 2016https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000386

Abstract

Abstract.Background: Suicidal behavior comprises a diverse set of behaviors with significant differences among several behavioral categories. One noteworthy category includes individuals who have made serious suicide attempts, epidemiologically very similar to those completing suicide. This behavioral category is important, since interviewing survivors of a potentially lethal incident of self-harm enables a detailed investigation of the psychological process leading to the suicidal act. Aim: To achieve a consensus definition and operational criteria of serious suicide attempts. Method: We reviewed studies that included the term serious suicide attempt or related terms (e.g., highly lethal), with a focus on the variety of operational criteria employed across studies. Results: More than 60 papers addressing various types of serious suicide attempt were explored. We found a large variety of operational definitions, reflecting the lack of consensus regarding terminology and criteria related to the term. Conclusion: We undertook the challenge of developing an integrative and comprehensive set of criteria of serious suicide attempt and suggest a definition comprising three key dimensions: medical lethality, potential lethality of the method used, and severity of the objective circumstances of the suicide intent. Clinicians and researchers are strongly encouraged to consider using the term serious suicide attempt with its attendant components.

References

  • Apter, A., Bleich, A., King, R. A., Kron, S., Fluch, A., Jotler, M., & Cohen, D. J. (1993). Death without warning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 138–142. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Apter, A., Horesh, N., Gothelf, D., Graffi, H., & Lepkifker, E. (2001). Relationship between self-disclosure and serious suicidal behavior. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42(1), 70–75. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Barraclough, B., Bunch, J., Nelson, B., & Sainsbury, P. (1974). A hundred cases of suicide: Clinical aspects. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 125(587), 355–373. 10.1192/bjp.125.4.355 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Beautrais, A. (2001). Suicides and serious suicide attempts: Two populations or one? Psychological Medicine, 31(5), 837–845. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Beautrais, A. L. (2003). Suicide and serious suicide attempts in youth: A multiple-group comparison study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(6), 1093–1099. 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1093 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Beautrais, A. L. (2004). Further suicidal behavior among medically serious suicide attempters. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 34(1), 1–11. 10.1521/suli.34.1.1.27772 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Beautrais, A. L., Joyce, P. R., & Mulder, R. T. (1999). Personality traits and cognitive styles as risk factors for serious suicide attempts among young people. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 29(1), 37–47. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Beautrais, A. L., Joyce, P. R., Mulder, R. T., Fergusson, D. M., & Nightingale, S. K. (1996). A case-control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 1009–1014. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Beck, A. T., Beck, R., & Kovacs, M. (1975). Classification of suicidal behaviors: I. Quantifying intent and medical lethality. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 132(3), 285–287. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Beck, A.T., Schuyler, D., & Herman, I. (1974). Development of suicidal intent scales. In A. BeckH. L. ResnikD. J. LettieriEds., The prediction of suicide (pp. 45–56). Oxford, UK: Charles Press Publishers. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bergen, H., Hawton, K., Waters, K., Ness, J., Cooper, J., Steeg, S., & Kapur, N. (2012). How do methods of non-fatal self-harm relate to eventual suicide? Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 526–533. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Berman, A. L., Shepherd, G., & Silverman, M. M. (2003). The LSARS-II: Lethality of Suicide Attempt Rating Scale–Updated. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 33(3), 261–276. 10.1521/suli.33.3.261.23211 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Brown, G. K., Henriques, G. R., Sosdjan, D., & Beck, A. T. (2004). Suicide intent and accurate expectations of lethality: Predictors of medical lethality of suicide attempts. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(6), 1170–1174. 10.1037/0022-006X.72.6.1170 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Cavanagh, J. T., Carson, A. J., Sharpe, M., & Lawrie, S. M. (2003). Psychological autopsy studies of suicide: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 33(03), 395–405. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Chen, Y. Y., Yip, P. S., Lee, C. K., Gunnell, D., & Wu, K. C. (2015). The diffusion of a new method of suicide: Charcoal-burning suicide in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(2), 227–236. 10.1007/s00127-014-0910-4 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Clark, D. C., & Horton-Deutsch, S. L. (1992). Assessment in absentia: The value of the psychological autopsy method for studying antecedents of suicide and predicting future suicides. In R. W. MarisA. I. BermanJ. T. MaltsbergerR. I. YufitEds., Assessment and prediction of suicide (pp. 144–182). New York, NY: Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Conner, K. R., Beautrais, A. L., Brent, D. A., Conwell, Y., Phillips, M. R., & Schneider, B. (2011). The next generation of psychological autopsy studies. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 41(6), 594–613. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • De Leo, D., Burgis, S., Bertolote, J.M., Kerkhof, A.J., & Bille-Brahe, U. (2006). Definitions of suicidal behavior: Lessons learned from the WHO/EURO multicentre study. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 27(1), 4–15. 10.1027/0227-5910.27.1.4 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • de Moore, G. M., & Robertson, A. R. (1999). Suicide attempts by firearms and by leaping from heights: A comparative study of survivors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(9), 1425–1431. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Diaz, F. J., Baca-Garcia, E., Diaz-Sastre, C., Resa, E. G., Blasco, H., Conesa, D. B., & Saiz-Ruiz, J. (2003). Dimensions of suicidal behavior according to patient reports. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 253(4), 197–202. 10.1007/s00406-003-0425-6 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Doihara, C., Kawanishi, C., Yamada, T., Sato, R., Hasegawa, H., Furuno, T., … Hirayasu, Y. (2008). Trait aggression in suicide attempters: A pilot study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 62(3), 352–354. 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2008.01804.x First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Douglas, J., Cooper, J., Amos, T., Webb, R., Guthrie, E., & Appleby, L. (2004). "Near-fatal" deliberate self-harm: Characteristics, prevention and implications for the prevention of suicide. Journal of Affective Disorders, 79(1), 263–268. 10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00391-9 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Durkheim, E. (1951/1897). Suicide: A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. (Original work published 1897) First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Elliott, A. J., Pages, K. P., Russo, J., & Wilson, L. G. (1996). A profile of medically serious suicide attempts. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 12, 567–581. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Elnour, A. A., & Harrison, J. (2008). Lethality of suicide methods. Injury Prevention, 14(1), 39–45. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Farmer, K. A., Felthous, A. R., & Holzer, C. E. (1996). Medically serious suicide attempts in a jail with a suicide-prevention program. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41(2), 240–246. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Fowler, J. C., Hilsenroth, M. J., Groat, M., Biel, S., Biedermann, C., & Ackerman, S. (2012). Risk factors for medically serious suicide attempts: Evidence for a psychodynamic formulation of suicidal crisis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 60(3), 555–576. 10.1177/0003065112442240 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Fowler, J. C., Piers, C., Hilsenroth, M. J., Holdwick, D. J., & Padawer, J. R. (2001). The Rorschach suicide constellation: Assessing varying degrees of lethality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 76, 333–351. 10.1207/S15327752JPA7602_13 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Freedenthal, S. (2008). Assessing the wish to die: A 30-year review of the Suicide Intent Scale. Archives of Suicide Research, 12(4), 277–298. 10.1080/13811110802324698 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Fyer, M. R., Frances, A. J., Sullivan, T., Hurt, S. W., & Clarkin, J. (1988). Co-morbidity of borderline personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 348–352. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Grunebaum, M. F., Oquendo, M. A., Harkavy-Friedman, J. M., Ellis, S. P., Li, S., Haas, G. L., … Mann, J. J. (2001). Delusions and suicidality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 742–747. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Gunnell, D., Bennewith, O., Hawton, K., Simkin, S., & Kapur, N. (2005). The epidemiology and prevention of suicide by hanging: A systematic review. International Journal of Epidemiology, 34(2), 433–442. 10.1093/ije/dyh398 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Harris, L., Hawton, K., & Zahl, D. (2005). Value of measuring suicidal intent in the assessment of people attending hospital following self-poisoning or self-injury. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 60–66. 10.1192/bjp.186.1.60 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Harriss, L., & Hawton, K. (2005). Suicidal intent in deliberate self-harm and the risk of suicide: The predictive power of the Suicide Intent Scale. Journal of Affective Disorders, 86(2), 225–233. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Haw, C., Hawton, K., Houston, K., & Townsend, E. (2003). Correlates of relative lethality and suicidal intent among deliberate self-harm patients. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 33(4), 353–364. 10.1521/suli.33.4.353.25232 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hawton, K. (2002). Studying survivors of nearly lethal suicide attempts: An important strategy in suicide research. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 32(1), 76–84. 10.1521/suli.32.1.5.76.24215 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hawton, K., Appleby, L., Platt, S., Foster, T., Cooper, J., Malmberg, A., & Simkin, S. (1998). The psychological autopsy approach to studying suicide: A review of methodological issues. Journal of Affective Disorders, 50(2–3), 269–276. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hawton, K., Saunders, K. E., & O'Connor, R. C. (2012). Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. The Lancet, 379(9834), 2373–2382. 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61260-9 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Heilbron, N., Compton, J. S., Daniel, S. S., & Goldston, D. B. (2010). The problematic label of suicide gesture: Alternatives for clinical research and practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41(3), 221–227. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hjelmeland, H., & Grøholt, B. (2005). A comparative study of young and adult deliberate self-harm patients. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 26(2), 64–72. 10.1027/0227-5910.26.2.64 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Horesh, N., Levi, Y., & Apter, A. (2012). Medically serious versus non-serious suicide attempts: Relationships of lethality and intent to clinical and interpersonal characteristics. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 286–293. 10.1016/j.jad.2011.11.035 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Huff, L. A. (1984). People in crisis: Understanding and helping (2nd ed.). Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kresnow, M. J., Ikeda, R. M., Mercy, J. A., Powell, K. E., Potter, L. B., Simon, T. R., … Frankowski, R. F. (2002). An unmatched case-control study of nearly lethal suicide attempts in Houston, Texas: Research methods and measurements. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 32(S1), 7–20. 10.1521/suli.32.1.5.7.24210 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kumar, C. T., Mohan, R., Ranjith, G., & Chandrasekaran, R. (2006). Characteristics of high intent suicide attempters admitted to a general hospital. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91(1), 77–81. 10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.028 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Levi, Y., Horesh, N., Fischel, T., Treves, I., Or, E., & Apter, A. (2008). Mental pain and its communication in medically serious suicide attempts: An "impossible situation." Journal of Affective Disorders, 111(2), 244–250. 10.1016/j.jad.2008.02.022 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Levi-Belz, Y., Gvion, Y., Horesh, N., & Apter, A. (2013). Attachment patterns in medically serious suicide attempts: The mediating role of self-disclosure and loneliness. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 43(5), 511–522. 10.1111/sltb.12035 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Levi-Belz, Y., Gvion, Y., Horesh, N., Fischel, T., Treves, I., Or, E., … Apter, A. (2014). Mental pain, communication difficulties, and medically serious suicide attempts: A case-control study. Archives of Suicide Research, 18(1), 74–87. 10.1080/13811118.2013.809041 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Mann, J. J. (2002). A current perspective of suicide and attempted suicide. Annals of Internal Medicine, 136(4), 302–311. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Mann, J. J., & Malone, K. M. (1997). Cerebrospinal fluid amines and higher-lethality suicide attempts in depressed inpatients. Biological Psychiatry, 41(2), 162–171. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Marzano, L., Rivlin, A., Fazel, S., & Hawton, K. (2009). Interviewing survivors of near-lethal self-harm: A novel approach for investigating suicide amongst prisoners. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 16(3), 152–155. 10.1016/j.jflm.2008.08.011 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • McIntosh, J. L. (1992). Epidemiology of suicide in the elderly. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 22(1), 15–35. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Miller, M., Azrael, D., & Hemenway, D. (2004). The epidemiology of case fatality rates for suicide in the northeast. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 43(6), 723–730. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Modai, I., Kuperman, J., Goldberg, I., Goldish, M., & Mendel, S. (2004). Fuzzy logic detection of medically serious suicide attempt records in major psychiatric disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(10), 708–710. 10.1097/01.nmd.0000142020.20038.dd First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Moscicki, E. K. (1995). Epidemiology of suicidal behavior. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 25(1), 22–35. 10.1111/j.1943-278X.1995.tb00390.x First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Moscicki, E. K. (1999). Epidemiology of suicide. In D. G. JacobsEd., The Harvard Medical School guide to suicide assessment and intervention (pp. 40–51). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Niméus, A., én, M., & Träskman-Bendz, L. (2002). High suicidal intent scores indicate future suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 6(3), 211–219. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K. (2009). Why do people hurt themselves? New insights into the nature and functions of self-injury. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(2), 78–83. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K., Borges, G., & Ono, Y. (2012). Suicide: Global perspectives from the WHO world mental health surveys. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • O'Carroll, P. W., Berman, A. L., Maris, R. W., Moscicki, E. K., Tanney, B. L., & Silverman, M. M. (1996). Beyond the Tower of Babel: A nomenclature for suicidology. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 26(3), 237–252. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • O'Carroll, P. W., Crosby, A., Mercy, J. A., Lee, R. K., & Simon, T. R. (2002). Interviewing suicide "decedents": A fourth strategy for risk factor assessment. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 32(1), 3–6. 10.1521/suli.32.1.5.3.24211 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • O'Donnell, I., Farmer, R., & Catalan, J. (1996). Explaining suicide: The views of survivors of serious suicide attempts. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 168(6), 780–786. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Pickles, A., Aglan, A., Collishaw, S., Messer, J., Rutter, M., & Maughan, B. (2010). Predictors of suicidality across the life span: The Isle of Wight study. Psychological Medicine, 40(09), 1453–1466. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Posner, K., Brent, D., Lucas, C., Gould, M., Stanley, B., Brown, G., … Mann, J. (2008). Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS). New York, NY: Columbia University Medical Center. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Posner, K., Brodsky, B., Yershova, K., Buchanan, J., & Mann, J. (2014). The classification of suicidal behavior 2. In M. K. NockEd., The Oxford handbook of suicide and self-injury (pp. 7–22). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Posner, K., Brown, G. K., Stanley, B., Brent, D. A., Yershova, K. V., Oquendo, M. A., … Mann, J. J. (2011). The Columbia–Suicide Severity Rating Scale: Initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1266–1277. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10111704 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Posner, K., Oquendo, M., Gould, M., Stanley, B., & Davies, M. (2007). Columbia Classification Algorithm of Suicide Assessment (C-CASA): Classification of suicidal events in the FDA's pediatric suicidal risk analysis of antidepressants. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(7), 1035–1043. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Potter, L. B., Kresnow, M. J., Powell, K. E., O'Carroll, P. W., Lee, R. K., Frankowski, R. F., … Briscoe, M. G. (1998). Identification of nearly fatal suicide attempts: Self-inflicted injury severity form. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 28(2), 174–186. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Rivlin, A., Fazel, S., Marzano, L., & Hawton, K. (2012). Studying survivors of near-lethal suicide attempts as a proxy for completed suicide in prisons. Forensic Science International, 220(1), 19–26. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.01.022 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Rivlin, A., Hawton, K., Marzano, L., & Fazel, S. (2010). Psychiatric disorders in male prisoners who made near-lethal suicide attempts: Case–control study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(4), 313–319. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.01.022 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Robins, E., Murphy, G. E., Wilkinson Jr., R. H., Gassner, S., & Kayes, J. (1959). Some clinical considerations in the prevention of suicide based on a study of 134 successful suicides. American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, 49(7), 888–899. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Rosen, D. H. (1970). The serious suicide attempt: epidemiological and follow-up study of 886 patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127(6), 764–770. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Rosen, D. H. (1976). The serious suicide attempt: Five-year follow-up study of 886 patients. JAMA, 235(19), 2105–2109. 10.1001/jama.235.19.2105 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Shneidman, E. S. (1981). The psychological autopsy. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 11, 325–340. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Shneidman, E. S. (1985). Definition of suicide. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Silverman, M. M., Berman, A. L., Sanddal, N. D., O'Carroll, P. W., & Joiner, T. E. (2007a). Rebuilding the Tower of Babel: A revised nomenclature for the study of suicide and suicidal behaviors Part 1: Background, rationale, and methodology. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 37(3), 248–263. 10.1521/suli.2007.37.3.248 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Silverman, M. M., Berman, A. L., Sanddal, N. D., O'Carroll, P. W., & Joiner, T. E. (2007b). Rebuilding the Tower of Babel: A revised nomenclature for the study of suicide and suicidal behaviors part 2: Suicide-related ideations, communications, and behaviors. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 37(3), 264–277. 10.1521/suli.2007.37.3.264 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Slater, J., & Depue, R. A. (1981). The contribution of environmental events and social support to serious suicide attempts in primary depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90(4), 275. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Smith, K., Conroy, R., & Ehler, B. (1984). Lethality of Suicide Attempt Rating scale. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 14, 215–242. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Stefansson, J., Nordström, P., & Jokinen, J. (2012). Suicide Intent Scale in the prediction of suicide. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(1), 167–171. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Suominen, K., Isometsä, E., Ostamo, A., & Lönnqvist, J. (2004). Level of suicidal intent predicts overall mortality and suicide after attempted suicide: A 12-year follow-up study. BMC Psychiatry, 4(1), 11–18. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Van Heeringen, C. (2001). Suicide, serotonin, and the brain. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 22(2), 66–70. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Vieta, E., Nieto, E., Gastó, C., & Cirera, E. (1992). Serious suicide attempts in affective patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 24(3), 147–152. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Vijayakumar, L., & Rajkumar, S. (1999). Are risk factors for suicide universal? A case-control study in India. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99(6), 407–411. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Vyrostek, S. B., Annest, J. L., & Ryan, G. W. (2004). Surveillance for fatal and nonfatal injuries – United States, 2001. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 53(7), 1–57. First citation in articleMedline, Google Scholar

  • Wakefield, J. C. (1992). Disorder as harmful dysfunction: A conceptual critique of DSM-III-R's definition of mental disorder. Psychological Review, 99(2), 232–247. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Wilson, M. (1993). DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: A history. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 399–410. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • World Health Organization. (2014). Preventing suicide: A global imperative. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Zalsman, G., Braun, M., Arendt, M., Grunebaum, M. F., Sher, L., Burke, A. K., … Oquendo, M. A. (2006). A comparison of the medical lethality of suicide attempts in bipolar and major depressive disorders. Bipolar Disorders, 8(5p2), 558–565. First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar