Unsustainable Consumption
Basic Causes and Implications for Policy
Abstract
Our dominant way of living is not sustainable and our activities as private individuals and households directly and indirectly account for a large and increasing share of total environmental impacts. These impacts are related to the structure as well as the level of consumption. In this article, research on the root causes of environmentally harmful human behavior is reviewed. Why is there no satiation of consumption in sight, even in the most affluent countries, and why do people continue to make choices that are known to be environmentally harmful? While potentially catastrophic, the harms from unsustainable consumption are mostly unintentional, which means that informational and educational means are not sufficient to produce the needed changes. They need to be implemented in concert with pervasive structural changes to make the right choice the easy choice.
References
1995). A longitudinal study of agenda setting for the issue of environmental pollution. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 72, 300–311.
(1988). Attitudes, personality, and behavior. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
(2013). Asian development outlook 2013. Asia’s energy challenge. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank.
. (2010). Public perceptions of energy consumption and savings. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 16054–16059. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1001509107
(2010). Ego depletion reduces proselfs’ concern with the well-being of others. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13, 227–239. doi: 10.1177/1368430209353634
(2007). Twenty years after Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera: A new meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27, 14–25.
(1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
(2003). Values and behavior: Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1207–1220.
(2002). Yielding to temptation: Self-control failure, impulsive purchasing, and consumer Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 670–676.
(2000). Ego depletion: A resource model of volition, self-regulation, and controlled processing. Social Cognition, 18, 130–150.
(2009). Barriers to acting in time on energy and strategies for overcoming them. In , Acting in time on energy policy (pp. 162–182). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
(2013). Comparing the effectiveness of monetary versus moral motives in environmental campaigning. Nature Climate Change, 3, 413–416.
(2011). An exploratory study into the factors impeding ethical consumption. Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 597–608. doi: 10.1007/s10551-010-0640-9
(2007). Advertising, individual consumption levels, and the natural environment, 1900–2000. Sociological Inquiry, 77, 522–542.
(2008). Can sustainable consumption be learned? A model of cultural evolution. Ecological Economics, 67, 646–657. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.01.028
(2009). Potential contributions of food consumption patterns to climate change. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 1704S–1709S.
(2007). Descriptive social norms as underappreciated sources of social control. Psychometrika, 72, 263–268.
(2008). Relative income, happiness, and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46, 95–144. doi: 10.1257/jel.46.1.95
(1999). If we are so rich, why aren’t we happy? American Psychologist, 54, 821–827.
(2000). The costs and benefits of consuming. Journal of Consumer Research, 27, 267–272.
(2007). Value orientations and environmental beliefs in five countries: Validity of an instrument to measure egoistic, altruistic and biospheric value orientations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 318–332. doi: 10.1177/0022022107300278
(2012). Values and pro-environmental behaviour. In , Environmental psychology: An introduction (pp. 141–152). Chichester, UK: PBS Blackwell.
(2008). A framework for pro-environmental behaviours. London, UK: DEFRA.
. (2002). Will money increase subjective well-being? Social Indicators Research, 57, 119–169.
(2009). Household actions can provide a behavioral wedge to rapidly reduce U.S. carbon emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 106, 18452–18456.
(2013). Reducing carbon-based energy consumption through changes in household behavior. Daedalus, 142, 78–89. doi: 10.1162/DAED_a_00186
(1992). How much is enough? The consumer society and the future of the earth. London, UK: Earthscan.
(1978). The population bomb. New York, NY: Ballantine.
(2010). The European environment – State and outlook 2010. Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment Agency.
. (1990). Happiness: Facts and myths. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
(2011). Bridging the intention-behavior gap: Inducing implementation intentions through persuasive appeals. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21, 302–311. doi: 10.1016/j.jcps.2010.12.003
(1993). Motivation as a limit to pricing. Journal of Economic Psychology, 14, 635–664.
(2008). The short list. The most effective actions U.S. households can take to curb climate change. Environment, 50, 12–24.
(2011). Beyond our means: Why America spends while the World saves. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
(2012). Measuring environmental behaviour. In , Environmental psychology: An introduction (pp. 131–140). Chichester, UK: PBS Blackwell.
(2002). Measurement and determinants of environmentally significant consumer behavior. Environment and Behavior, 34, 335–362.
(2010). Values and sustainable lifestyles. Architectural Science Review, 53, 37–50. doi: 10.3763/asre.2009.0101
(2011). Behavioral dimensions of climate change: Drivers, responses, barriers, and interventions. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 2, 801–827.
(2012). The evolutionary bases for sustainable behavior: Implications for marketing, policy, and social entrepreneurship. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 31, 115–128. doi: 10.1509/jppm.11.040
(1995). Economic growth and the environment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110, 353–377. doi: 10.2307/2118443
(2009). Like father, like son. Intergenerational transmission of values, attitudes and behaviours in the environmental domain. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 414–421.
(1995). Influences on attitude-behavior relationships. A natural experiment with curbside recycling. Environment and Behavior, 27, 699–718.
(2003). Moderating effects of social value orientation on determinants of proenvironmental behavior intention. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 1–9.
(2005). Consumption and the rebound effect: An industrial ecology perspective. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9, 85–98.
(2006). Accounting for sustainable consumption: A review of studies of the environmental impacts of households. In , The Earthscan reader in sustainable consumption (pp. 88–108). London, UK: Earthscan.
(1974). Human population and the global environment: Population growth, rising per capita material consumption, and disruptive technologies have made civilization a global ecological force. American Scientist, 62, 282–292.
(1996). Status effects and environmental externalities. Ecological Economics, 16, 25–34. doi: 10.1016/0921-8009(95)00076-3
(2006). Consumer behavior (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
(2005). Live better by consuming less? Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9, 19–36.
(2009). Prosperity without growth – Economics for a finite planet. London, UK: Earthscan.
(1890). The principles of psychology. New York, NY: Holt.
(2011). Exploring consumer adoption of a high involvement eco-innovation using value-belief-norm theory. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 10, 51–60. doi: 10.1002/cb.346
(2005). Environmental problems as social dilemmas: The temporal dimension. In , Understanding behavior in the context of time: Theory, research, and application (pp. 289–304). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697–720.
(2001). Disclosing situational constraints to ecological behavior: A confirmatory application of the mixed Rasch model. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 212–221.
(1997). The joy of consumption. Regional Review, 7, 12–17.
(1995). Modeling myopic decisions: Evidence for hyperbolic delay-discounting within subjects and amounts. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64, 22–30. doi: dx.doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1995.1086
(2013). Could working less reduce pressures on the environment? A cross-national panel analysis of OECD countries, 1970–2007. Global Environmental Change. doi: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.02.017
(2005). American risk perceptions: Is climate change dangerous? Risk Analysis, 25, 1433–1442.
(1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
(2009). Spent: Sex, evolution, and consumer behavior. New York, NY: Viking.
(2005). Pursuing more sustainable consumption by analyzing household metabolism in European countries and cities. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9, 259–276.
(2001). Perverse subsidies: How tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy. Washington, DC: Island Press.
(2004). Public attention, political action: the example of environmental regulation. Rationality and Society, 16, 149–190.
(2011). Living in denial: Climate change, emotions, and everyday life. Boston, MA: MIT Press.
(2009). Reorienting climate change communication for effective mitigation. Science Communication, 30, 305–327. doi: 10.1177/1075547008328969
(2011). Greening household behaviour: The role of public policy. Paris, France: OECD.
. (2000). Denial and the process of moral exclusion in environmental conflict. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 475–490.
(1988). Housing consumption: Collective systems service. In , The sociology of consumption (pp. 119–138). Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
(1998). Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 54–74.
(2011). Dubious assumptions prime population bomb. Nature, 473, 125.
(2003). The evolutionary roots of our environmental problems: Toward a Darwinian ecology. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 78, 275–301.
(2009). Planetary boundaries: Exploring the safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society, 14, 32.
(1973). The nature of human values. New York, NY: Free Press.
(2012). Human drivers of national greenhouse-gas emissions. Nature Climate Change, 2, 581–586. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1506
(2007). Are shorter work hours good for the environment? A comparison of US and European energy consumption. International Journal of Health Services, 37, 405–417.
(2002). Willing consumers – or locked-in? Policies for a sustainable consumption. Ecological Economics, 42, 273–287.
(2005). Sustainable consumption and worktime reduction. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9, 37–50.
(1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In , Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–65). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
(2001). Value hierarchies across cultures – Taking a similarities perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 268–290.
(1998). Consumer expenditures and the growth of need-required income. In , Ethics of consumption: The good life, justice, and global stewardship (pp. 176–197). New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield.
(2005). Income distribution and well-being: What can we learn from subjective data? Journal of Economic Surveys, 19, 43–63.
(2003). Converging conventions of comfort, cleanliness and convenience. Journal of Consumer Policy, 26, 395–418. doi: 10.1023/a:1026362829781
(2012). Changing household consumption to address climate change: Social scientific insights and challenges. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 3, 379–395. doi: 10.1002/wcc.182
(2007). The rebound effect: An assessment of the evidence for economy-wide energy savings from improved energy efficiency. London, UK: UK Energy Research Centre.
(2008). Promoting household energy conservation. Energy Policy, 36, 4449–4453.
(2009). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 309–317. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004
(1999). Information, incentives, and proenvironmental consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Policy, 22, 461–478.
(2000). Towards a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 407–424.
(2012). People and the planet. London, UK: The Royal Society.
(2011). Human behavioral contributions to climate change: Psychological and contextual drivers. American Psychologist, 66, 251–264.
(2003). Promoting sustainable consumption: Determinants of green purchases of Swiss consumers. Psychology and Marketing, 20, 883–902.
(2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 354–365.
(2008). Nudge. Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. London, UK: Penguin.
(2012). Turn down the heat. Why a 4° warmer world must be avoided. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
. (1994). A model of recycling behaviour. With evidence from Danish source separation programmes. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 11, 145–163.
(2005a). Consumer behaviour and the environment: Which role for information? In , Environment, information and consumer behaviour (pp. 51–63). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
(2005b). How may consumer policy empower consumers for sustainable lifestyles? Journal of Consumer Policy, 28, 143–178.
(2010). Electricity saving in households – A social cognitive approach. Energy Policy, 38, 7732–7743.
(2012). Consumer decision making regarding a “green” everyday product. Psychology and Marketing, 29, 187–197. doi: 10.1002/mar.20514
(2012). Chinese consumers’ adoption of a “green” innovation: The case of organic food. Journal of Marketing Management, 28, 313–333. doi: 10.1080/0267257x.2012.658834
(2002). Human values and the emergence of a sustainable consumption pattern: A panel study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 23, 605–630.
(2010). The impacts of household consumption and options for change. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 14, 13–30. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2009.00208.x
(2012). State of World population 2012: By choice, not by chance: Family planning, human rights and development. New York, NY: UNFPA.
. (2004). What we know (and do not know) about the effects of uncertainty on behavior in social dilemmas. In , Contemporary psychological research on social dilemmas (pp. 315–331). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
(2006). Interventions to break and create consumer habits. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 25, 90–104.
(1997). Habit, information acquisition, and the process of making travel mode choices. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 539–560.
(2012). The habits of consumption, Vol. 12, Helsinki, Finland: The Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies.
(2010). Behaviour and climate change: Consumer perceptions of responsibility. Journal of Marketing Management, 27, 808–833. doi: 10.1080/0267257x.2010.500136
(2009). Determinants of pro-environmental consumption: The role of reference groups and routine behavior. Ecological Economics, 69, 166–176.
(2013). The effect of ‘green’ messages on brand purchase and brand rejection. Australasian Marketing Journal, 21, 105–110. doi: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2013.02.007
(2010). Consumption embedded in culture and language: Implications for finding sustainability. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 6, 38–48.
(2001). Learning to consume – A theory of wants and the growth of demand. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 11, 23–36. doi: 10.1007/pl00003851
(2011). The dynamics of consumer behavior and the transition to sustainable consumption patterns. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 1, 109–114. doi: 10.1016/j.eist.2011.03.001
(2009). The habitual consumer. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19, 579–592. doi: 10.1016/j.jcps.2009.08.003
(1987). Our common future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
. (2006). The A-B-C of recycling. European Advances in Consumer Research, 7, 297–302.
(2013). Informing or nudging – which way to a more effective environmental policy? In , Marketing, food and the consumer. Festschrift in Honour of Klaus G. Grunert (pp. 141–155). Harlow, UK: Pearson.
(