Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Free AccessReplication Report

A Longitudinal Analysis of Political Ideology, Pornography Consumption, and Attitude Change

Replication and Extension

Published Online:December 12, 2022https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000370

Abstract

Abstract: The effects of pornography have been of central focus to communication scholars for decades. Despite this, recent meta-analyses reveal a need for additional longitudinal studies probing pornography’s socializing effects, in general; a need for attitudinal studies, specifically; and a need for studies of US adults, in particular. In response to these needs and recent calls for replication studies across the social and behavioral sciences, the present study replicated and extended an early US longitudinal study finding that pornography consumption predicted over time interindividual change in adults’ sexually permissive attitudes among liberal, but not conservative, pornography consumers. The results provided (a) evidence that the original study was neither a sampling fluke nor a product of model misspecification; (b) further evidence that longitudinal associations between pornography use and content congruent outcomes are not simply due to reverse-causation; and (c) preliminary optimism for the reproducibility of findings in the field of pornography effects.

References

  • Baams, L., Overbeek, G., Dubas, J. S., Doornwaard, S. M., Rommes, E., & Van Aken, M. A. (2015). Perceived realism moderates the relation between sexualized media consumption and permissive sexual attitudes in Dutch adolescents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(3), 743–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0443-7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Becker, T. E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8(3), 274–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428105278021 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Becker, T. E., Atinc, G., Breaugh, J. A., Carlson, K. D., Edwards, J. R., & Spector, P. E. (2016). Statistical control in correlational studies: 10 essential recommendations for organizational researchers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2053 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Berkowitz, L., & Donnerstein, E. (1982). External validity is more than skin deep: Some answers to criticisms of laboratory experiments. American Psychologist, 37(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.3.245 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (2011). Correlation in restricted ranges of data. British Medical Journal, 342(1), 556–557. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d556 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bogaert, A. F., Woodard, U., & Hafer, C. L. (1999). Intellectual ability and reactions to pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 36(3), 283–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909551998 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Burnay, J., Kepes, S., & Bushman, B. J. (2022). Effects of violent and nonviolent sexualized media on aggression‐related thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors: A meta‐analytic review. Aggressive Behavior, 48(1), 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21998 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2021). Solving the puzzle of null violent media effects. Psychology of Popular Media. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000361 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Carrotte, E. R., Davis, A. C., & Lim, M. S. (2020). Sexual behaviors and violence in pornography: Systematic review and narrative synthesis of video content analyses. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(5), Article e16702. https://doi.org/10.2196/16702 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Berry, S. H., Kanouse, D. E., Kunkel, D., Hunter, S. B., & Miu, A. (2004). Watching sex on television predicts adolescent initiation of sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 114, e280–e289. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2003-1065-L First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cova, F., Strickland, B., Abatista, A., Allard, A., Andow, J., Attie, M., Beebe, J., Berniunas, R., Boudesseul, J., Colombo, M., Cushman, F., Diaz, R., N’Djaye, N., van Dongen, N., Dranseika, V., Earp, B., Gaitan, A., Hannikainen, I., Hernandez-Conde, J., & Zhou, X. (2021). Estimating the reproducibility of experimental philosophy. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 12(1), 9–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-018-0400-9 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cumming, G., & Maillardet, R. (2006). Confidence intervals and replication: Where will the next mean fall? Psychological Methods, 11(3), 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.11.3.217 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Davern, M., Bautista, R., Freese, J., Morgan, S., & Smith, T. W. (2020). General social survey panel. National Opinion Research Center. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when, and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9308-7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. In J. BryantD. ZillmannEds., Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 17–41). Lawrence Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. Vintage. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hald, G. M., Malamuth, N. N., & Lange, T. (2013). Pornography and sexist attitudes among heterosexuals. Journal of Communication, 63(4), 638–660. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12037 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hald, G. M., Malamuth, N. M., & Yuen, C. (2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies. Aggressive Behavior, 36(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20328 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hodson, G. (2022). Reconsidering reconsent: Threats to internal and external validity when participants reconsent after debriefing. British Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12561 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jensen, R. E. (2010). A content analysis of youth sexualized language and imagery in adult film packaging, 1995–2007. Journal of Children and Media, 4(4), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2010.510005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Keating, D. M., & Totzkay, D. (2019). We do publish (conceptual) replications (sometimes): Publication trends in communication science, 2007–2016. Annals of the International Communication Association, 43(3), 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2019.1632218 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Klapper, J. T. (1948). Mass media and the engineering of consent. The American Scholar, 17(4), 419–429. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41206632 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Linz, D., & Malamuth, N. M. (1993). Pornography. Sage. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lo, V. H., & Wei, R. (2005). Exposure to Internet pornography and Taiwanese adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(2), 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4902_5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mecham, N. W., Lewis-Western, M. F., & Wood, D. A. (2021). The effects of pornography on unethical behavior in business. Journal of Business Ethics, 168(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04230-8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meehl, P. (1971). High school yearbooks: A reply to Schwarz. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77(2), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030750 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Miller, G. A., & Chapman, J. P. (2001). Misunderstanding analysis of covariance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(1), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.40 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2019). Reproducibility and replicability in science. The National Academies Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Omori, K., Zhang, Y. B., Allen, M., Ota, H., & Imamura, M. (2011). Japanese college students’ media exposure to sexually explicit materials, perceptions of women, and sexually permissive attitudes. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 40(2), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2011.581031 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Paul, B., & Linz, D. G. (2008). The effects of exposure to virtual child pornography on viewer cognitions and attitudes toward deviant sexual behavior. Communication Research, 35(1), 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650207309359 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Perry, S. L. (2017). Does viewing pornography reduce marital quality over time? Evidence from longitudinal data. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(1), 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0770-y First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Perry, S. L. (2017). Does viewing pornography diminish religiosity over time? Evidence from two-wave panel data. Journal of Sex Research, 54(1), 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1146203 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Perry, S. L. (2020). Pornography and relationship quality: Establishing the dominant pattern by examining pornography use and 31 measures of relationship quality in 30 national surveys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(4), 1199–1213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01616-7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2008). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material, sexual uncertainty, and attitudes toward uncommitted sexual exploration: Is there a link? Communication Research, 35(5), 579–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208321754 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2009). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material and notions of women as sex objects: Assessing causality and underlying processes. Journal of Communication, 59(3), 407–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01422.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2010). Processes underlying the effects of adolescents’ use of sexually explicit internet material. Communication Research, 37(3), 375–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210362464 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Peters, E. M., Morrison, T., McDermott, D. T., Bishop, C. J., & Kiss, M. (2014). Age is in the eye of the beholder: Examining the cues employed to construct the illusion of youth in teen pornography. Sexuality & Culture, 18(3), 527–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-013-9210-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Prot, S., & Anderson, C. A. (2013). Research methods, design, and statistics in media psychology. In K. DillEd., The Oxford handbook of media psychology (pp. 109–136). Oxford University Press. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schramm, W. (1949). The effects of mass communications: A review. Journalism Quarterly, 26(4), 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769904902600403 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Slater, M. D. (2015). Reinforcing spirals model: Conceptualizing the relationship between media content exposure and the development and maintenance of attitudes. Media Psychology, 18(3), 370–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2014.897236 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sleep, C. E., Lynam, D. R., Hyatt, C. S., & Miller, J. D. (2017). Perils of partialing redux: The case of the Dark Triad. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(7), 939–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000278 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Smith, T. W., Marsden, P. V., & Hout, M. (2015). General Social Surveys, 1972–2014. National Opinion Research Center. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Steele, J. R. (1999). Teenage sexuality and media practice: Factoring in the influences of family, friends, and school. Journal of Sex Research, 36(4), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909552005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • The General Social Survey. (2022a). For Survey Participants. https://gss.norc.org/For-Survey-Participants First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • The General Social Survey. (2022b). About the GSS. https://gss.norc.org/About-The-GSS First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tokunaga, R. S., Wright, P. J., & Roskos, J. E. (2019). Pornography and impersonal sex. Human Communication Research, 45(1), 78–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqy014 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tokunaga, R. S., Wright, P. J., & Vangeel, L. (2020). Is pornography consumption a risk factor for condomless sex? Human Communication Research, 46(2–3), 273–299. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqaa005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vandenbosch, L., & van Oosten, J. M. (2017). The relationship between online pornography and the sexual objectification of women: The attenuating role of porn literacy education. Journal of Communication, 67(6), 1015–1036. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12341 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vandenbosch, L., van Oosten, J. M., & Peter, J. (2018). Sexually explicit internet material and adolescents’ sexual performance orientation: The mediating roles of enjoyment and perceived utility. Media Psychology, 21(1), 50–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2017.1361842 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vannier, S. A., Currie, A. B., & O’Sullivan, L. F. (2014). Schoolgirls and soccer moms: A content analysis of free “teen” and “MILF” online pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 51(3), 253–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.829795 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wallace, D. H., & Wehmer, G. (1971). Pornography and attitude change. Journal of Sex Research, 7(2), 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224497109550698 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Waltman, M. (2021). Pornography: The politics of legal challenges. Oxford University Press. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ward, L. M., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The impact of men’s magazines on adolescent boys’ objectification and courtship beliefs. Journal of Adolescence, 39(1), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.12.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Willoughby, B. J., Leonhardt, N. D., & Augustus, R. A. (2021). Curvilinear associations between pornography use and relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and relationship stability in the United States. Computers in Human Behavior. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106966 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2011). Mass media effects on youth sexual behavior. Communication Yearbook, 35, 343–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2011.11679121 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2012). A longitudinal analysis of US adults’ pornography exposure: Sexual socialization, selective-exposure, and the moderating role of unhappiness. Journal of Media Psychology, 24(2), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000063 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2013). A three-wave longitudinal analysis of preexisting beliefs, exposure to pornography, and attitude change. Communication Reports, 26(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2013.773053 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2015). Americans’ attitudes toward premarital sex and pornography consumption: A national panel analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0353-8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2020). Media and sexuality. In M. B. OliverA. A. RaneyJ. BryantEds., Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 227–242). Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2021a). Overcontrol in pornography research: Let it go, Let it go…. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(2), 387–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01902-9 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2021b). Pornographic socialization as “selective-exposure”: Let it go, let it go II. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(2), 393–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-01922 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J. (2022). Pornography, white men, and relational satisfaction. Archives of Sexual Behavior. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02420-6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Bae, S., & Funk, M. (2013). United States women and pornography through four decades: Exposure, attitudes, behaviors, individual differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(7), 1131–1144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0116-y First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Bridges, A. J., Sun, C., Ezzell, M. B., & Johnson, J. A. (2018). Personal pornography viewing and sexual satisfaction: A quadratic analysis. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 44(3), 308–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2017.1377131 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Herbenick, D., & Paul, B. (2022). Casual condomless sex, range of pornography exposure, and perceived pornography realism. Communication Research, 49(4), 547–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502211003765 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Herbenick, D., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2022). Pornography and women’s experience of mixed-gender sexual choking/strangulation: Eroticization mediates, perceived similarity moderates. Journal of Health Communication, 27(3), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2022.2073406 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Miezan, E., & Sun, C. (2019). Pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction in a Korean sample. Journal of Media Psychology, 31(3), 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000246 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Steffen, N. J., & Sun, C. (2019). Is the relationship between pornography consumption frequency and lower sexual satisfaction curvilinear? Results from England and Germany. Journal of Sex Research, 56(1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1347912 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Sun, C., Bridges, A., Johnson, J. A., & Ezzell, M. B. (2019). Condom use, pornography consumption, and perceptions of pornography as sexual information in a sample of adult US males. Journal of Health Communication, 24(9), 693–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2019.1661552 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Sun, C., & Steffen, N. (2018). Pornography consumption, perceptions of pornography as sexual information, and condom use. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 44(8), 800–805. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2022a). US adults’ attitudes toward gay individuals’ civil liberties, moral judgments of homosexuality, support for same-sex marriage, and pornography consumption, revisited. Journal of Sex Research, 59(5), 537–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1999893 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2022b). On the use of control variables in pornography effects research: A longitudinal conceptual replication. Health Communication. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2114762 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., & Bae, S. (2014). Pornography consumption and US adults’ attitudes toward gay individuals’ civil liberties, moral judgments of homosexuality, and support for same-sex marriage: Mediating and moderating factors. Communication Monographs, 81(1), 79–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2013.871048 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., & Herbenick, D. (2022). Perceived similarity, utility, and social realism as potential mediators of the link between pornography use and condomless sex. Health Communication. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2035084 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., Herbenick, D., & Paul, B. (2022a). To misspecify is common, to probe misspecification scientific: Common “confounds” in pornography research may actually be predictors. Journal of Communication, 72(3), 429–447. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqac012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., Herbenick, D., & Paul, B. (2022b). Pornography vs. sexual science: The role of pornography use and dependency in US teenagers’ sexual illiteracy. Communication Monographs, 89(3), 332–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2021.1987486 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., & Kraus, A. (2016). A meta-analysis of pornography consumption and actual acts of sexual aggression in general population studies. Journal of Communication, 66(1), 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12201 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., Kraus, A., & Klann, E. (2017). Pornography consumption and satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 43(3), 315–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12108 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Yang, X. Y. (2016). Is social status related to internet pornography use? Evidence from the early 2000s in the United States. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(4), 997–1009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0584-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1982). Pornography, sexual callousness, and the trivialization of rape. Journal of Communication, 32(4), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1982.tb02514.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar