Changing Implicit and Explicit Prejudice
Insights from the Associative-Propositional Evaluation Model
Abstract
Although overt prejudice has declined in many societies over the past decades, new advancements in intergroup relations research have uncovered various kinds of subtle biases that continue to prevail despite increases in egalitarian values. Understanding the processes that may produce inconsistencies between spontaneous affective responses and self-reported explicit evaluations can provide deeper insights into conceptually different forms of prejudice, including both overt and subtle variants. In the present article, research on prejudice reduction is reviewed from the perspective of the associative-propositional evaluation (APE) model, which considers evaluations through the processes of associative activation and propositional validation. The APE model’s potential for integrating different conceptualizations of overt and subtle prejudice and the application of the model to prejudice reduction are discussed.
References
2005). Changing prejudice: The effects of persuasion on implicit and explicit forms of race bias. In , Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 249–280). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
(2004). Contextual moderation of racial bias: The impact of social roles on controlled and automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 5–22.
(2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 242–261.
(2000). “I am not racist but ...” mapping White college students’ racial ideology in the USA. Discourse & Society, 11, 50–85.
(2010 ). The integrative prejudice framework and different forms of weight prejudice: An analysis and expansion. Manuscript submitted for publication.2008). Cognitive consistency and the relation between implicit and explicit prejudice: Reconceptualizing old-fashioned, modern, and aversive prejudice. In , The psychology of modern prejudice (pp. 27–50). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
(1980). Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 546–563.
(2004). Seeing is believing: Exposure to counterstereotypic women leaders and its effect on the malleability of automatic gender stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 642–658.
(2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800–814.
(2001) Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 853–869.
(2006). At the boundaries of automaticity: Negation as reflective operation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 385–405.
(1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.
(2004). Aversive racism. In , Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 1–52). New York: Elsevier.
(1997). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 316–326.
(2009). Endorsing Obama licenses favoring whites. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 590–593.
(2007). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength. Social Cognition, 25, 603–637.
(2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and uses. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327.
(1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027.
(1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row Peterson.
(1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.
(1999). Intentional control over prejudice: When the choice of the measure matters. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 469–477.
(2008). When and why do implicit measures predict behavior? Empirical evidence for the moderating role of opportunity, motivation, and process reliance. European Review of Social Psychology, 19, 285–338.
(2007). Guess who’s been coming to dinner? Trends in interracial marriage over the 20th century. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21, 71–90.
(1986). The aversive form of racism. In , Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61–89). San Diego: Academic Press.
(1983). Racial stereotypes: Associations and ascriptions of positive and negative characteristics. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 23–30.
(2006a). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692–731.
(2006b). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: Conceptual, empirical, and meta-theoretical issues. Reply to Albarracín, Hart, and McCulloch (2006), Kruglanski and Dechesne (2006), and Petty and Briñol (2006). Psychological Bulletin, 132, 745–750.
(2007). Unraveling the processes underlying evaluation: Attitudes from the perspective of the APE model. Social Cognition, 25, 687–717.
(2008). When “just say no” is not enough: Affirmation versus negation training and the reduction of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 370–377.
(2006). Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious? Consciousness and Cognition, 15, 485–499.
(2008). Understanding patterns of attitude change: When implicit measures show change, but explicit measures do not. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1355–1361.
(2008). Understanding the relations between different forms of racial prejudice: A cognitive consistency perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 648–665.
(2010). Formation, change, and contextualization of mental associations: Determinants and principles of variations in implicit measures. In , Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications (pp. 216–240). New York, NY: Guilford.
(2004). On the propositional nature of cognitive consistency: Dissonance changes explicit, but not implicit attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 535–542.
(1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
(2006). Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 1–20.
(1994). Revision and change of stereotypic beliefs: In search of the elusive subtyping model. European Review of Social Psychology, 5, 69–109.
(2005). What moderates explicit-implicit consistency? European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 335–390.
(2006). The influence of facial feedback on race bias. Psychological Science, 17, 256–261.
(1985). Resistance to affirmative action: Self-interest or racism? Journal of Conflict Resolution, 29, 306–329.
(2010). The surprisingly limited malleability of implicit racial evaluations. Social Psychology, 41, 137–146.
(2009). The ironic consequences of Obama’s election: Decreased support for social justice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 556–559.
(1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 893–905.
(2007). (Close) distance makes the heart grow fonder: Improving implicit attitudes and interracial interactions through approach behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 957–971.
(1997). When exceptions prove the rule: How extremity of deviance determines the impact of deviant exemplars on stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 965–979.
(1994). Generalization of dissonance reduction: Decreasing prejudice through induced compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 395–413.
(1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In , Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91–125). San Diego: Academic Press.
(1981). Has racism declined in America? It depends on who is asking and what is asked. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25, 563–579.
(2003). Contextual variations in implicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 455–469.
(1999). Resisting stereotype change: The role of motivation and attentional capacity in defending social beliefs. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 2, 5–16.
(2005). The influence of behavior on attitudes. In , Handbook of attitudes and attitude change (pp. 223–271). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2006). Reducing automatically activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 421–433.
(2009). Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes: The perspective of the MODE model. In , Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures (pp. 19–63). New York: Psychology Press.
(2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277–293.
(2005). To think or not to think: Exploring two routes to persuasion. In , Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 81–116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
(2008). Implicit attitude generalization occurs immediately, explicit attitude generalization takes time. Psychological Science, 19, 249–254.
(2001). Subtyping and subgrouping: Processes for the prevention and promotion of stereotype change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 52–73.
(2001). “Unlearning” automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 856–868.
(1999). Measuring the automatic components of prejudice: Flexibility and generality of the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 17, 437–465.
(2009). I like you, I like you not: Understanding the formation of context-dependent automatic attitudes. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 1118–1152.
(2007). Implicit and explicit attitudes respond differently to increasing amounts of counterattitudinal information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 867–878.
(2003). The origins of symbolic racism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 259–275.
(1992). Exemplar-based model of social judgment. Psychological Review, 99, 3–21.
(1997). Reaching beyond race. Political Science and Politics, 30, 466–471.
(2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 220–247.
(1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199–214.
(1983). Cognitive processes in the revision of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 961–977.
(1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34–52.
(2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101–126.
(1997). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationships with questionnaire measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262–274.
(2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 815–827.
(