Abstract
Abstract. In two online field-experiments (N1 = 336, N2 = 456) we investigated the effects of belonging to an ethnic minority, a sexual minority, or to both minority groups simultaneously on rental discrimination in Germany. We predicted that a Turkish heterosexual couple and a German gay male couple would receive fewer replies to their inquiries about a rental offering and fewer invitations for viewings than a German heterosexual couple. We also predicted that the intersection of two stigmatized identities would have beneficial effects and thus result in less discrimination of the Turkish gay male couple compared to the Turkish heterosexual couple. Chi-square tests revealed evidence of rental discrimination based on ethnicity, but not for discrimination based on sexual orientation; no evidence for beneficial effects of the intersection of two stigmatized identities was found. Implications for future research on discrimination of ethnic and sexual minorities are discussed.
References
(2008). Are lesbians discriminated against in the rental housing market? Evidence from a correspondence testing experiment. Journal of Housing Economics, 17, 234–238. doi: 10.1016/j.jhe.2008.06.003
(2008). Discrimination in the rental housing market: A field experiment on the Internet. Journal of Urban Economics, 64, 362–372. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2008.00692.x
(2009). Detecting discrimination against homosexuals: Evidence from a field experiment on the internet. Economica, 76, 588–597. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2008.00692.x
(2010). Stereotypes of social groups in Germany in terms of warmth and competence. Social Psychology, 41, 76–81. doi: 10.1027/1864-9335/a000011
(2014). Society matters: The mediational role of social recognition in the relationship between victimization and life satisfaction among gay men. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 195–201. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2007
(1970).
Double jeopardy: To be Black and female . In T. CadeEd., The Black women (pp. 90–100). New York, NY: New American Library.(2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. American Economic Review, 94, 991–1013. doi: 10.1257/0002828042002561
(2011). Multiple disadvantages: An empirical test of intersectionality theory in EEO litigation. Law & Society Review, 45, 991–1025. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00463.x
(2009). Information and discrimination in the rental housing market: Evidence from a field experiment. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 40, 11–19. doi: 10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2009.11.001
(2013). “Faking til you make it”: Social capital accumulation of individuals on low incomes living in contrasting socio-economic neighbourhoods and its implications for health and wellbeing. Social Science & Medicine, 85, 9–17. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.02.026
. (2013). Migrationsbericht 2011
[Migration report 2011] . Retrieved from http://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/DE/Publikationen/Migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht-2011.pdf(2006). Rental discrimination and ethnicity in names. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 934–952. doi: 10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00050.x
(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1997). Are ghettos good or bad? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112, 827–872. doi: 10.1162/003355397555361
. (2009). Data in Focus Report 2: Muslims. Retrieved from http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/448-EU-MIDIS_MUSLIMS_EN.pdf
. (2014). EU LGBT survey – European Union lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender survey: Main results. Retrieved from http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-eu-lgbt-survey-main-results_tk3113640enc_1.pdf
(2013). Which name unlocks the door? The effect of tenant race/ethnicity on landlord response. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, E416–E425. doi: 10.1111/jasp.12034
(2006). Helping behavior as a subtle measure of discrimination against lesbians and gay men: German data and a comparison across countries. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 690–707. doi: 10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00025.x
(1971). Effects of race on the elicitation of helping behavior: The wrong-number technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 218–222. doi: 10.1037/h0031681
. (2014). ALLBUS 1980–2012 – Allgemeine Bevölkerungsumfrage der Sozialwissenschaften
[German General Social Survey] . Köln, Germany: Gesis Data ArchiveZA4578 Data file Version 1.0.0. doi: 10.4232/1.11898(2008). Double jeopardy? The interaction of gender and race on earnings in the United States. Social Forces, 86, 1217–1244. doi: 10.1353/sof.0.0008
(2010). Neighborhood does matter!. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 62, 655–679. doi: 10.1007/s11577-010-0117-y
(2009). Prejudiced behavior toward lesbians and gay men. Social Psychology, 40, 234–238. doi: 10.1027/1864-9335.40.4.234
(1993). Models of crossed categorization and intergroup relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 779–793. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.779
(2011). Racial and ethnic biases in rental housing: An audit study of online apartment listings. City and Community, 10, 351–372. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6040.2011.01376.x
. (2012). Die Furcht vor dem Morgenland im Abendland
[The fear of the orient in the occident] . Retrieved from http://www.ifd-allensbach.de/uploads/tx_reportsndocs/November12_Islam_01.pdf(2012). Ethnic discrimination in Germany’s labour market: A field experiment. German Economic Review, 13, 1–20. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0475.2011.00538.x
(2000). “Stechen statt Sprechen”: Valenz und Aktivierbarkeit von Stereotypen über Türken
[Stereotypes about Turks: Valence and activation] . Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 31, 31–43. doi: 10.1024/0044-3514.31.1.31(2009). Beyond the double-jeopardy hypothesis: Assessing emotion on the faces of multiply-categorizable targets of prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1281–1285. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.07.002
(2013). Field experiments on sensitive organizational topics. Organizational Research Methods, 16, 501–521. doi: 10.1177/1094428112462608
(1987). Gender belief systems: Homosexuality and the implicit inversion theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 83–96. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00776.x
(1999). Discrimination against ethnic minorities in Germany: Going back to the field. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 402–423. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01394.x
(2012). Homophobie in Nordrhein-Westfalen: Sonderauswertung der Studie „Gruppenbezogene Menschenfeindlichkeit”
[Homophobia in North Rhine-Westphalia: Special evaluation of the study „Group-based Enmity”] . Retrieved from https://broschueren.nordrheinwestfalendirekt.de/broschuerenservice/mgepa/homophobie-in-nordrhein-westfalen/1212(2011). No room for new families? A field experiment measuring rental discrimination against same-sex couples and single parents. Social Problems, 58, 389–409. doi: 10.1525/sp.2011.58.3.389
(2002). Perceived discrimination in the context of multiple group memberships. Psychological Science, 13, 557–560. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00498
(1997). What do people believe about gay males? A study of stereotype content and strength. Sex Roles, 37, 663–685. doi: 10.1007/BF02936334
(2014). Stereotypes towards Turkish migrants in Germany. Unpublished raw data, Department of Community Psychology, University of Hagen, Germany.
(1965). The lost-letter technique: A tool of social research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 29, 437–441. doi: 10.1086/267344
(2001).
Die beliebtesten und häufigsten Vornamen in Deutschland (BRD und DDR) von 1960 bis 1990 [The most favorite and common first names in Germany (FRG and GDR) between 1960 and 1990] . In M. WermkeR. HobergK. M. Eichhoff-CyrusEds., Name und Gesellschaft: Soziale und historische Aspekte der Namengebung und Namenentwicklung (pp. 52–69). Mannheim, Germany: Dudenverlag.(1998). Accepting the homosexual person: A rental accommodation in the community. Journal of Homosexuality, (pp. 31–40). 36. doi: 10.1300/J082v36n02_03
(2010).
Measuring discrimination . In M. A. CentenoK. S. NewmanEds., Discrimination in an unequal world (pp. 45–60). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.(2009). The nature of contemporary prejudice: Insights from aversive racism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 314–338. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00183.x
(2014). The positive consequences of negative stereotypes: Race, sexual orientation, and the job application process. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77, 75–94. doi: 10.1177/0190272513506229
(2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59, 377–391. doi: 10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4
(2011). Impressions at the intersection of ambiguous and obvious social categories: Does homosexual + Black = likable? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 1312–1315. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.015
(2001). Subtyping and subgrouping: Processes for the prevention and promotion of stereotype change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 52–73. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0501_4
(2012). Failure is not an option for Black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1162–1167. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.002
(2014). Diskriminierung am Ausbildungsmarkt: Ausmaß, Ursachen und Handlungsperspektiven
[Discrimination in the vocational training market: Magnitude, causes, and policy implications] . Retrieved from http://www.svr-migration.de/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/SVR-FB_Diskriminierung-am-Ausbildungsmarkt.pdf(2006). The educational attainment of Turkish migrants in Germany. Turkish Studies, 7, 101–124. doi: 10.1080/14683840500520626
(2005). Implicit and explicit attitudes towards lesbians and gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 49, 39–66. doi: 10.1300/J082v49n02_03
(2010). Doppelt diskriminiert: Lebenssituation von Lesben und Schwulen mit Migrationshintergrund in Deutschland
[Double-discrimination: Living conditions of lesbians and gay men with migration background in Germany] . Retrieved from http://www.migrationsfamilien.de/pdf/Studie_Jena.pdf(2014). Intergroup anxiety: Theory, research, and practice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 239–255. doi: 10.1177/1088868314530518
(2009). Is the neighbourhood effect an economic or an immigrant issue? A study of the importance of the childhood neighbourhood for future integration into the labour market. Urban Studies, 46, 583–603. doi: 10.1177/0042098008100996
(1996). “Excuse me, sir? May I help you and your boyfriend?”: Salespersons’ differential treatment of homosexual and straight customers. Journal of Homosexuality, 31, 135–152. doi: 10.1300/J082v31n01_08
(2015). Testing for discrimination against lesbians of different marital status: A field experiment. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 54, 131–161. doi: 10.1111/irel.12079
(2001). Racial residential segregation: A fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116, 404–416. doi: 10.1016/s0033-3549(04)50068-7
