Taking Priming to Task
Variations in Stereotype Priming Effects Across Participant Task
Abstract
Abstract. The current research examined potential moderators of gender and racial stereotype priming in sequential priming paradigms. Results from five experiments suggest that stereotype priming effects are more consistent in tasks that elicit both semantic priming and response competition (i.e., response priming paradigms) rather than tasks that evoke semantic priming alone (i.e., semantic priming paradigms). Recommendations for future stereotype priming research and the implication of these results for the proper interpretation of stereotype priming effects are discussed.
References
2014). A behavioral database for masked form priming. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 1052–1067. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0442-y
(1996). Automatic stereotyping. Psychological Science, 7, 136–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00346.x
(2006). Stereotype activation and control of race bias: Cognitive control of inhibition and its impairment by alcohol. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 272–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.272
(2013). Evidence of nonconscious stereotyping of Hispanic patients by nursing and medical students. Nursing Research, 62, 362–367. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNR.0b013e31829e02ec
(2000). Automatic and controlled components of prejudice toward fat people: Evaluation versus stereotype activation. Social Cognition, 18, 329–353. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2000.18.4.329
(2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 242. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0603_8
(1996). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1142. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1142
(2007). Further evidence of gender stereotype priming in language: Semantic facilitation and inhibition in Italian role nouns. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716407070142
(2001). Semantic priming of person recognition: Categorial priming may be a weaker form of the associative priming effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1155–1179. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980143000091
(2010). Automatic stereotype activation is context dependent. Social Psychology, 41, 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000019
(2004). A tale of two primes: Contextual limits on stereotype activation. Social Cognition, 22, 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.22.2.233.35462
(2005). Accessing world knowledge: Evidence from N400 and reaction time priming. Cognitive Brain Research, 25, 589–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.08.011
(2007). Expectancy effects in social stereotyping: Automatic and controlled processing in the Neely paradigm. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 39, 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/cjbs20070013
(1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407
(2005). Separating multiple processes in implicit social cognition: The quad model of implicit task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 469–487. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.469
(2009). When the method makes a difference: Antagonistic effects on “automatic evaluations” as a function of task characteristics of the measure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.001
(2011). A question of honor: Chief Wahoo and American Indian stereotype activation among a university based sample. The Journal of Social Psychology, 151, 577–591. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2010.507265
(2012). Spontaneous gender categorization in masking and priming studies: Key for distinguishing Jane from John Doe but not Madonna from Sinatra. PloS One, 7, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032377
(2014). The N400 as an index of racial stereotype accessibility. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 544–552. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst018
(1981). Accessibility of social constructs: Information processing consequences of individual and contextual variability. Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction, 69, 121.
(2003). Is semantic priming due to association strength or feature overlap? A microanalytic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 785–813. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196544
(2001). Spontaneous gender-stereotypical categorization of trait labels and job labels. Current Research in Social Psychology, 6, 77–90.
(1999). Implicit stereotyping and prejudice and the primed Stroop task. Swiss Journal of Psychology/Schweizerische Zeitschrift Für Psychologie/Revue Suisse De Psychologie, 58, 241–250. https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185.58.4.241
(2001). The reliability of implicit stereotyping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 212–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272007
(2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871–888. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.871
(2017). Sequential stereotype priming: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868317723532
(2009). Implicit gender-based food stereotypes. Semantic priming experiments on young Japanese. Appetite, 52, 521–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.11.002
(2000). Semantic priming without association: A meta-analytic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7, 618–630. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212999
(2009). A matter of design: Priming context and person perception. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1012–1015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.021
(2002). Are you looking at me? Eye gaze and person perception. Psychological Science, 13, 460–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00481
(2007). A boy primed Sue: Feature-based processing and person construal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 793–805. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.406
(2002). What’s in a forename? Cue familiarity and stereotypical thinking. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 186–193. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2001.1496
(1995). A distributed memory model of semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.1.3
(2005). Semantic priming: Perspectives from memory and word recognition. New York, NY: Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203338001
(2004). A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 36, 630–633. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206543
(2011). Egalitarian goals trigger stereotype inhibition: A proactive form of stereotype control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp. 2010.08.014
(1995). Accessing different types of lexical semantic information: Evidence from priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 863–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.863
(2014). What does it take to activate stereotypes? Simple primes don’t seem to be enough. A replication of stereotype activation (Banaji & Hardin, 1996; Blair & Banaji, 1996). Social Psychology, 45, 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000183
(1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.106.3.226
(1989). Semantic priming in the lexical decision task: Roles of prospective prime-generated expectancies and retrospective semantic matching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(6), 1003–1019. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.15.6.1003
(2017). Sport = Male… But not all sports: Investigating the gender stereotypes of sport activities at the explicit and implicit levels. Sex Roles, 76, 202–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0650-x
(1970). Norms of word association. New York, NY: Academic Press.
(2002). 358,534: The ARC Nonword Database. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55A, 1339–1362. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980244000099
(2012). Recognizing disguised faces. Visual Cognition, 20, 143–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2012.654624
(2012). Implicit measures of the stereotype content associated with disability. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51, 732–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02087.x
(1986). The PDP Research Group 1986: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (Vols. 1 and 2). Cambridge, MA: Foundations, MIT Press/Bradford Books.
(2005). Don’t stereotype, think different! Overcoming automatic stereotype activation by mindset priming. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 506–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.10.002
(2004). Specificity of priming: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 853–862. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1534
(2009).
(Specificity of memory: Implications for individual and collective remembering . In P. BoyerJ. V. WertschP. BoyerJ. V. WertschEds., Memory in mind and culture (pp. 83–111). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511626999.0062012). Unconscious semantic activation depends on feature-specific attention allocation. Cognition, 122, 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.017
(2009). Modulation of automatic semantic priming by feature-specific attention allocation. Journal of Memory and Language, 61, 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2009.03.004
(2007). Affective priming of nonaffective semantic categorization responses. Experimental Psychology (formerly “Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie”), 54, 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.44
(2010). Consider the situation: Reducing automatic stereotyping through situational attribution training. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 221–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.09.004
(2011). Prime and prejudice: Co-occurrence in the culture as a source of automatic stereotype priming. British Journal of Social Psychology, 50, 501–518. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466610X524254
(2013). Cognitive processes in associative and categorical priming: A diffusion model analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 536–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029459
(2010).
(A practical guide to sequential priming and related tasks . In B. GawronskiB. K. PayneEds., Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications (pp. 95–116). New York, NY: Guilford Press.2014).
(Priming is not priming is not priming . In D. C. MoldenD. C. MoldenEds., Understanding priming effects in social psychology (pp. 49–69). New York, NY: Guilford Press.2009). Gender stereotype priming in RTs and the N400. Unpublished raw data. El Paso, TX: University of Texas at El Paso.
(2009). Wait, what? Assessing stereotype incongruities using the N400 ERP component. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4, 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsp004
(2008). Event-related potentials indicate different processes to mediate categorical and associative priming in person recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 1246–1263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012937
(2007).
(Measuring attitudes through priming . In B. WittenbrinkN. SchwarzEds., Implicit measures of attitudes (pp. 17–58). New York, NY: Guilford Press.1997). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.262
(