Cognitive Factors Mediate the Relation Between Age and Flight Path Maintenance in General Aviation
Abstract
Abstract. Identifying pilot attributes associated with risk is important, especially in general aviation where pilot error is implicated in most accidents. This research examined the relationship of pilot age, expertise, and cognitive functioning to deviations from an ideal circuit trajectory. In all, 54 pilots, of varying age, flew a Cessna 172 simulator. Cognitive measures were obtained using the CogScreen-AE (Kay, 1995). Older age and lower levels of expertise and cognitive functioning were associated with significantly greater flight path deviations. The relationship between age and performance was fully mediated by a cluster of cognitive factors: speed and working memory, visual attention, and cognitive flexibility. These findings add to the literature showing that age-related changes in cognition may impact pilot performance.
References
(2010). The impact of brain size on pilot performance varies with aviation training and years of education. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(3), 412–423. doi: 10.1017/S1355617710000111
(1994). Developments in the concept of working memory. Neuropsychology, 8(4), 485. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.485
(2011). Impact of gender, age and experience of pilots on general aviation accidents. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 43(3), 962–970. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2010.11.023
(1997). Visual scanning and pilot expertise: The role of attentional flexibility and mental model development. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 86(7), 569–579.
. (2002). Genesis of a feedback system based on human factors for the prevention of accidents in general aviation. Le Bourget Cedex, France: Author. Retrieved from http://www.bea.aero/etudes/genesis/genesis.pdf
(2011). Cognitive aging and flight performances in general aviation pilots. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 18(5), 544–561. doi: 10.1080/13825585.2011.586018
(2012). Report on the COPA 2012 membership survey. Ottawa, ON: COPA. Retrieved from http://www.copanational.org/files/2012Survey4Website.pdf
(2007). Age-related changes in detecting unexpected air traffic and instrument malfunctions. Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology. Dayton, OH: Wright State University.
(2006). Analysis of 2004 German general aviation aircraft accidents according to the HFACS model. Air Medical Journal, 25(6), 265–269. doi: 10.1016/j.amj.2006.03.003
(2015). Guide for aviation medical examiners. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation. Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/aam/ame/guide/
. (2014). A practical guide for improving flight path monitoring. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved from http://flightsafety.org/files/flightpath/EPMG.pdf
. (2012). General aviation: Additional FAA efforts could help identify and mitigate safety risks. Washington, DC: United States Government. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/assets/650/649219.pdf
(2007). Age-related group and individual differences in aircraft pilot cognition. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 17(1), 77–90. doi: 10.1080/10508410709336938
(1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 22, 193–225. doi: 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60041-9
(1991).
COGSCREEN – Personal computer-based tests of cognitive function for occupational medical certification . In R. S. JensenEd., Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 734–739). Columbus, OH: Wright State University.(1994). Age 60 Study, Part 4: Experimental evaluation of pilot performance. DTIC Document. Retrieved from http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA286248
(1995). CogScreen aeromedical edition professional manual (professional manual). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
(2010). Age and expertise effects in aviation decision making and flight control in a flight simulator. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 81(5), 489–497. doi: 10.3357/ASEM.2684.2010
(2015). 24th Joseph T. Nall report-general aviation accidents in 2012. Frederick, MD: AOPA. Retrieved from http://www.aopa.org/-/media/Files/AOPA/Home/Pilot-Resources/Safety-and-Proficiency/Accident-Analysis/Nall-Report/15-FN-0022-1-24th-Nall-V6.pdf
(2014). Advanced mediating effects tests, multi-group analyses, and measurement model assessments in PLS-based SEM. International Journal of E-Collaboration, 10(1), 1–13. doi: 10.4018/ijec.2014010101
(2007). Older driver retraining: A systematic review of evidence of effectiveness. Journal of Safety Research, 38(1), 81–90. doi: 10.1016/j.jsr.2009.02.002
(2008). Analysis of general aviation crashes in Australia using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 18(4), 340–352.
(2005). Driving-while-intoxicated history as a risk marker for general aviation pilots. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 37(1), 179–184. doi: 10.1080/10508410802346939
. (2015). NTSB 2015 most wanted transportation safety improvements: Prevent loss of control in flight in general aviation. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.ntsb.gov/safety/mwl/Documents/MWL_2015_Factsheet_07.pdf
(2015).
Driving and aging . In S. K. WhitburneEd., The encyclopedia of adulthood, aging, Vol. 3 (pp. 367–373). Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons.(2010). Selective review of cognitive aging. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(05), 754–760. doi: 10.1017/S1355617710000706
(2008). Expertise differences in attentional strategies related to pilot decision making. Human Factors: The Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 50(6), 864–878. doi: 10.1518/001872008X374974
(2014). Causes of fatal accidents for instrument-certified and non-certified private pilots. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 72, 370–375.
(2007). Pilot age and expertise predict flight simulator performance – A 3-year longitudinal study. Neurology, 68(9), 648–654.
(2005). Cognitive ability, expertise, and age differences in following air-traffic control instructions. Psychology and Aging, 20(1), 117–133. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.20.1.117
(2000). Relationship of CogScreen-AE to flight simulator performance and pilot age. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 71(4), 373–380.
. (2015). Statistical summary – Aviation occurrences 2014. Gatineau, QC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.bst-tsb.gc.ca/eng/stats/aviation/2014/ssea-ssao-2014.pdf
. (2015). Pilot examiner manual. Government of Canada. Gatineau QC: TSBC. Retrieved from https://www.tc.gc.ca/media/documents/civilaviation/pilot_examiner_manual_fifth_edition_tp14277e_jan_2015.pdf
(2014).
Individual pilot factors predict simulated runway incursion outcomes . In M. VidulichP. TsangJ. FlachEds., Advances in Aviation Psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 197–214). Burlington, USA: Ashgate Books.(2015). Prospective memory failures in aviation: Effects of cue salience, workload, and individual differences. Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 86(4), 366–373. doi: 10.3357/AMHP.3428.2015
(2005). Human error and general aviation accidents: A comprehensive fine-grained analysis using HFACS. DTIC Document. Retrieved from http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier = ADA460866
