Skip to main content

Violent Lyrics = Aggressive Listeners?

Effects of Song Lyrics and Tempo on Cognition, Affect, and Self-Reported Arousal

Published Online: Doi: https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000144

Abstract. Research on music has had an impressive impact. For example, the semantic content of lyrics seems to cause associated short-term effects regarding cognition and affect. However, we argue that these effects might have been confounded by other musical parameters related to time, pitch, texture, or voice of the selected songs. This study overcame this methodological problem by using different versions of an experimentally manipulated song. In a 2 × 2 between-subjects design, 120 university students listened to four versions of a song with violent or prosocial lyrics presented in slow or fast tempo. As predicted by theories of priming, violent lyrics increased aggressive cognitions (word completion test) and aggressive affect (self-reported state anger) in comparison with prosocial lyrics. However, the reverse effects of prosocial lyrics on prosocial cognitions and prosocial affect could not be confirmed. Finally, the tempo of the song did not consistently increase self-reported arousal, and we did not find more extreme effects under conditions of fast tempo as predicted by the arousal-extremity model.

References

  • Allen, M., Herrett-Skjellum, J., Jorgenson, J., Kramer, M. R., Ryan, D. J. & Timmerman, L. (2007). Effects of Music. In R. W. PreissB. GayleN. BurrellM. AllenJ. BryantEds., Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 263–279). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L. & Eubanks, J. (2003). Exposure to violent media: The effects of songs with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 960–971. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.960 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Atkin, C. K., Smith, S. W., Roberto, A. J., Fediuk, T. & Wagner, T. (2002). Correlates of verbally aggressive communication in adolescents. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 30, 251–268. doi: 10.1080/00909880216585 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ballard, M. E. & Coates, S. (1995). The immediate effects of homicidal, suicidal, and nonviolent heavy metal and rap songs on the moods of college students. Youth & Society, 27(2), 148–168. doi: 10.1177/0044118X95027002003 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Barongan, C. & Hall, G. (1995). The influence of misogynous rap music on sexual aggression against women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 195–207. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00287.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Berkowitz, L. (1984). Some effects of thoughts on anti- and prosocial influences of media events: A cognitive-neoassociation analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 410–427. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.410 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Berkowitz, L. (1990). On the formation and regulation of anger and aggression: A cognitive neoassociationistic analysis. American Psychologist, 45, 494–503. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.45.4.494 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brummert Lennings, H. I. & Warburton, W. A. (2011). The effect of auditory versus visual violent media exposure on aggressive behaviour: The role of song lyrics, video clips and musical tone. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 794–799. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.02.006 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buckley, K. E. & Anderson, C. A. (2006). A theoretical model of the effects and consequences of playing video games. In P. VordererJ. BryantEds., Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 363–378). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Buss, A. H. & Perry, M. (1992). The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452–459. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Carpentier, F. & Potter, R. F. (2007). Effects of music on physiological arousal: Explorations into tempo and genre. Media Psychology, 10, 339–363. doi: 10.1080/15213260701533045 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Collier, W. G. & Hubbard, T. L. (2001). Judgments of happiness, brightness, speed and tempo change of auditory stimuli varying in pitch and tempo. Psychomusicology, 17, 36–55. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO personality inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Elson, M. & Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: Empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. European Psychologist, 19(1), 33–46. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000147 First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Fischer, P. & Greitemeyer, T. (2006). Music and aggression: The impact of sexual-aggressive song lyrics on aggression-related thoughts, emotions, and behavior toward the same and the opposite sex. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1165–1176. doi: 10.1177/0146167206288670 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Gomez, P. & Danuser, B. (2007). Relationships between musical structure and psychophysiological measures of emotion. Emotion, 7, 377–387. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.377 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Greitemeyer, T. (2009a). Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on prosocial behavior: Further evidence and a mediating mechanism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1500–1511. doi: 10.1177/0146167209341648 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Greitemeyer, T. (2009b). Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on prosocial thoughts, affect, and behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(1), 186–190. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.08.003 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Greitemeyer, T. (2011). Exposure to music with prosocial lyrics reduces aggression: First evidence and test of the underlying mechanism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(1), 28–36. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2010.08.005 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Greitemeyer, T., Hollingdale, J. & Traut-Mattausch, E. (2015). Changing the track in music and misogyny: Listening to music with pro-equality lyrics improves attitudes and behavior toward women. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4, 56–67. doi: 10.1037/a0030689 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Grühn, D. & Smith, J. (2008). Characteristics for 200 words rated by young and older adults: Age-Dependent Evaluations of German Adjectives (AGE). Behavior Research Methods, 40, 1088–1097. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.4.1088 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hansen, C. (1995). Predicting cognitive and behavioral effects of gangsta rap. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1–2), 43–52. doi: 10.1207/s15324834basp1601&2_3 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hansen, C. & Krygowski, W. (1994). Arousal-augmented priming effects: Rock music videos and sex object schemas. Communication Research, 21(1), 24–47. doi: 10.1177/009365094021001003 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hodges, D. (2009). Bodily responses to music. In S. HallamI. CrossM. ThautEds., Oxford handbook of music psychology (pp. 121–130). Oxford: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Holbrook, M. B. & Anand, P. (1990). Effects of tempo and situational arousal on the listener’s perceptual and affective responses to music. Psychology of Music, 18(2), 150–162. doi: 10.1177/0305735690182004 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Huesmann, L. & Taylor, L. D. (2006). The role of media violence in violent behavior. Annual Review of Public Health, 27, 393–415. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144640 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Husain, G., Thompson, W. & Schellenberg, E. (2002). Effects of musical tempo and mode on arousal, mood, and spatial abilities. Music Perception, 20(2), 151–171. doi: 10.1525/mp.2002.20.2.151 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Jacob, C., Guéguen, N. & Boulbry, G. (2010). Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on tipping behavior in a restaurant. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29, 761–763. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.02.004 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Kellaris, J. J. & Kent, R. J. (1993). An exploratory investigation of responses elicited by music varying in tempo, tonality, and texture. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2, 381–401. doi: 10.1016/S1057-7408(08)80068-X First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Musto, P. & Shaw, K. (2008). Rebellion in the top music charts: Defiant messages in rap/hip-hop and rock music 1993 and 2003. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 20(1), 15–23. doi: 10.1027/1864-1105.20.1.15 First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Krahé, B. & Bieneck, S. (2012). The effect of music‐induced mood on aggressive affect, cognition, and behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42, 271–290. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00887.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Litle, P. & Zuckerman, M. (1986). Sensation seeking and music preferences. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 575–577. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(86)90136-4 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mast, J. F. & McAndrew, F. T. (2011). Violent lyrics in heavy metal music can increase aggression in males. North American Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 63–64. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Medienpädagogischer Forschungsverbund Südwest. (2012). JIM-Studie 2012. Jugend, Information, (Multi-) Media. Basisuntersuchung zum Medienumgang 12- bis 19-Jähriger [JIM study 2012: Youth, information, (multi-)media: Basic survey about the media use of 12- to 19-year-olds]. Stuttgart: Medienpädagogischer Forschungsverbund Südwest. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mueller, C. W. & Donnerstein, E. (1981). Film-facilitated arousal and prosocial behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 17(1), 31–41. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(81)90004-4 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Roskos-Ewoldsen, B. & Carpentier, F. (2002). Media priming: A synthesis. In J. BryantD. ZillmannEds., Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 97–120). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rubin, A. M., West, D. V. & Mitchell, W. S. (2001). Differences in aggression, attitudes toward women, and distrust as reflected in popular music preferences. Media Psychology, 3(1), 25–42. doi: 10.1207/S1532785XMEP0301_02 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Schwartz, K. D. & Fouts, G. T. (2003). Music preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 205–213. doi: 10.1023/A:1022547520656 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Schwenkmezger, P., Hodapp, V. & Spielberger, C. D. (1992). Das State-Trait-Ärgerausdrucks Inventar (STAXI). Manual [The state trait anger expression inventory manual]. Bern: Verlag Hans Huber. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schwibbe, M., Räder, K., Schwibbe, G., Borchardt, M. & Geiken-Pophanken, G. (1994). Zum emotionalen Gehalt von Substantiven, Adjektiven und Verben [About the emotional content of subjects, adjectives, and verbs]. In W. HagerM. HasselhornEds., Handbuch deutschsprachiger Wortnormen (pp. 272–284). Göttingen: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Sprankle, E. L., End, C. M. & Bretz, M. N. (2012). Sexually degrading music videos and lyrics: Their effects on males’ aggression and endorsement of rape myths and sexual stereotypes. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 24(1), 31–39. doi: 10.1027/1864-1105/a000060 First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Steyer, R., Schwenkmezger, P., Notz, P. & Eid, M. (1997). Der Mehrdimensionale Befindlichkeitsfragebogen (MDBF). Manual [The multi-dimensional mental state questionnaire manual]. Göttingen: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Took, K. J. & Weiss, D. S. (1994). The relationship between heavy metal and rap music and adolescent turmoil: Real or abstract? Adolescence, 29(115), 613–623. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • van der Zwaag, M. D., Westerink, J. M. & van den Broek, E. L. (2011). Emotional and psychophysiological responses to tempo, mode, and percussiveness. Musicae Scientiae, 15, 250–269. doi: 10.1177/1029864911403364 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wanamaker, C. E. & Reznikoff, M. (1989). Effects of aggressive and nonaggressive rock songs on projective and structured tests. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 123, 561–570. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Webster, G. D. & Weir, C. G. (2005). Emotional responses to music: Interactive effects of mode, texture, and tempo. Motivation and Emotion, 29(1), 19–39. doi: 10.1007/s11031-005-4414-0 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wester, S. R., Crown, C. L., Quatman, G. L. & Heesacker, M. (1997). The influence of sexually violent rap music on attitudes of men with little prior exposure. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 497–508. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00127.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Zillmann, D. & Bryant, J. (1974). Effect of residual excitation on the emotional response to provocation and delayed aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 782–791. doi: 10.1037/h0037541 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

Access content

To read the fulltext, please use one of the options below to sign in or purchase access.