Impact of Consumer Emotional Intelligence on Satisfaction With Life During the COVID-19 Pandemic
The Mediating Role of Impulsive Buying Behavior
Abstract
Abstract. This study investigates the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in consumers’ satisfaction with life (SWL), particularly during the COVID-19 crisis. It looks into the relationship between consumer EI, impulsive buying (IB), and SWL, particularly during the dreadful COVID-19 pandemic. It also reflects on the mediating role of IB in the indirect association between consumer EI and SWL. The data were collected from 483 public-sector university graduates in Islamabad, Pakistan. Findings reveal a significant association between consumer EI and IB as well as between consumer EI and SWL. In addition, consumer IB behavior played a significant mediating role in the indirect relationship between consumer EI and SWL: When consumers have a high level of EI, their involvement in IB is low, and they are more satisfied with their lives. This study helps consumers to understand how to effectively manage emotions ensuing during shopping experiences to control their buying behavior. The study also broadens our understanding of how EI can help consumers to remain satisfied during the COVID-19 crisis.
Pandemics are not a modern phenomenon; they have been documented since ancient times (Huremović, 2019). Each past pandemic resulted in significant changes in the economy, regional and global policies, social behavior, and citizens’ attitudes (Cao et al., 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has compelled people in most countries to keep social distance and stay at home to protect themselves. This situation also led to the closing of schools, marketplaces, and shopping malls, thus affecting consumer psychology, emotions, and behaviors (Moroń & Biolik-Moroń, 2021). Anxiety, discomfort, and tension caused by the COVID-19 pandemic can affect young consumers’ emotions (Moroń & Biolik-Moroń, 2021). The ability to perceive, use, comprehend, and manage emotions is commonly referred to as emotional intelligence (EI) (Colman, 2015). The concept of EI has been used in literature since 1964 (Davitz, 1964). According to Goleman (1995), EI can be categorized into abilities including emotional awareness, emotional management, self-motivation, empathy, and relationship handling. Mayer et al. (2003) stated that EI is measured with ability-based scales and is considered a set of skills that deal with the processing of emotion-relevant information.
Different scholars investigated the impact of EI in reshaping an individual’s behavior during the COVID-19 crisis. This topic was particularly important during the pandemic, which has confined many people to their homes and hampered their income-generating activities (Omar et al., 2021). The COVID-19 outbreak induced considerable emotional discomfort, including fear of the disease, anxiety, despair, and anger (Dai et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2020). Even young people who are not at high risk for the disease are also stressed. EI, particularly in youths, can help reduce and cope with anxiety and stress brought on by the pandemic fear (Huang & Zhao, 2020; Khan, 2021; Khan, Khan, et al., 2020). Individuals with a higher level of EI are likely to be happier and more satisfied with their lives, which can then help them cope with stress brought on by a pandemic or their employment (Cao et al., 2019). Trait EI is related to both mental and physical health in a significant and positive way (Spence et al., 2004). As expected, a higher level of EI is negatively correlated with negative emotions and vice versa during the COVID-19 pandemic (Sun et al., 2021).
In a study conducted by Ekici and Watson (2021), consumers who possess a higher level of EI, positivity, and hope experience greater satisfaction with life (SWL) during COVID-19 than those who are characterized by “escape” behaviors. Bagozzi et al. (1999) investigated the role of emotions in marketing and discussed how positive and negative emotions predict customer satisfaction and postpurchase behavior. Consumer satisfaction leads to SWL through the adoption of different lifestyles (Füller & Matzler, 2008). Lim and Kim (2020) found that consumer EI aids in consumer decision-making, allowing consumers to make effective and wise decisions to distinguish between inferior and superior product dimensions (Khan, Ali, et al., 2020). Customers with a higher level of EI are less inclined to engage in impulsive buying (IB), which helps low-income families stick to their household budgets (Nair & Das, 2015).
According to several recent studies, the COVID-19 pandemic had a detrimental psychological impact on consumer buying behavior (Huang & Zhao, 2020). Consumers’ negative psychological states are strongly linked to IB (Silvera et al., 2008), which, in turn, lowers SWL. Psychological crisis management for COVID-19 can focus on achieving emotional stability, facing fear, monitoring discomfort, and enhancing coping (Khan, Khan, & Soomro, 2021; Ran et al., 2020). EI, which is defined as the efficient processing and handling of emotional cues (Mayer et al., 2004), can be a critical protective factor during a pandemic. However, further research is needed to explore how EI affects SWL during pandemic crises, with a focus on the marketing domain. The latter is frequently overlooked in the popular debate on the impact of EI on consumer behavior and satisfaction during the COVID-19 crisis. The new situation created by the COVID-19 pandemic has piqued marketing scholars’ interest, compelling them to investigate the impact of EI on consumer SWL.
This study investigates the relationship between consumer IE and SWL, through consumer IB. Kidwell et al. (2008) defined consumer EI as a person’s ability to skillfully use emotional information to achieve the desired consumer outcome. For example, when consumers possess strong emotional regulation skills along with emotional confidence and emotional ability (Khan, Khan, & Soomro, 2021), they tend to make higher food quality choices (Arora et al., 2017; Khan, Khan, et al., 2020). In contrast, when consumer EI is low, consumer IB behaviors can lead to negative behavioral outcomes, such as dissatisfaction, regret, and disappointment, which in turn can lead to a loss of customer loyalty (Khan, Ali, et al., 2020; Rao & Ko, 2021) and life dissatisfaction. This study adds to our understanding of the impact of consumer EI on consumer SWL during the COVID-19 crisis, with an emphasis on university students. It also enhances our understanding of the mediating role of consumer IB in the relationship between consumer EI and consumer SWL (see Figure 1).
Hypothesis Development
Shin and Johnson (1978) defined SWL as “a global assessment of a person’s quality of life according to his chosen criteria.” Diener et al. (1985) developed the SWL measure, and their findings show that SWL is one of the components of subjective well-being (Bano et al., 2019; Silvera et al., 2008). The present study focuses on understanding the relationship between consumer EI and SWL from a consumer perspective to develop a deeper understanding of the role of emotional management in consumer behavior. Sun et al. (2014) noted that a higher level of EI increases the SWL of individuals by boosting their level of core self-evaluation. Kong et al. (2012) argued that a higher level of EI helps in recognizing, managing, and controlling emotions with one’s own self-awareness.
A direct significant positive relationship exists between consumer EI and SWL.
Bayley and Nancarrow (1998) defined IB as an “unexpected, compelling, hedonically complex buying behavior in which the rapidity of an impulse decision process precludes thoughtful and deliberate consideration of alternative information and choices.” Omar et al. (2021) characterized IB as a consumer buying tendency that takes place when the purchase is made randomly, spontaneously, and immediately. A higher level of consumer EI lowers the feeling of guilt, and they can enjoy an economic shopping experience by not engaging in IB in a pleasant retail setting (Nair & Das, 2015). EI predicts IB negatively and self-esteem positively. Buying decisions based on immediate positive emotions are for the sake of joy and immediate happiness (Khan, Khan, & Moin, 2021), and most of such decisions lead to an increase in IB (Luce, 1998). With the proper use of emotion management skills, customers do not indulge in unplanned buying (Peter & Krishnakumar, 2010).
Emotional ability and emotional knowledge allow customers to make better buying decisions (Khan & Khan, 2021). Emotionally dysregulated customers, on the other hand, make poor decisions, resulting in IB (Jung, 2017), possibly through a lower ability to process information (Weinberg & Gottwald, 1982). According to Bearden et al. (1993), consumers high in EI are less involved in impulsivity as they have a better ability to understand and manage their emotions.
A direct significant positive relationship exists between consumer EI and IB.
According to the literature, rational decision-making assists customers in valuing their buying behavior (Kemp et al., 2018). People cannot set their living standards if they are unable to evaluate their current state of life (Kanwal, Pitafi, Malik, Khan, & Rashid, 2020). Irrational decisions can lead to a more dissatisfied and unbalanced life (Liu et al., 2017). Roberts et al. (2015) considered addictive buying to be caused by materialism and lack of knowledge, which increases IB and decreases SWL. Similarly, Silvera et al. (2008) suggested that consumers’ negative psychological constructs regarding SWL are very closely associated with IB. Furthermore, IB can result in negative evaluations, including dissatisfaction, regret, and disappointment. At extreme levels, such evaluations during shopping can lead to a reduction in customer loyalty (Lin et al., 2018). In line with the above evidence, Karimi et al. (2018) suggested that IB can lead customers to dissatisfaction with life, whereas planned and purposeful purchasing decision results in SWL. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis.
A significant relationship exists between IB behavior and SWL.
Previous scholars supported the mediating role of IB in several consumer behaviors and outcomes. During a shopping experience, IB mediates the relationship between hedonic shopping motivations and willingness to buy counterfeit goods (Fenneman & Frankenhuis, 2020). Saad and Metawie (2015) suggested that IB tendency mediates the relationship between personality as well as store environmental factors and IB behavior. Similarly, Tremblay (2017) proposed that IB mediates the relationship between personality traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience but not extroversion and consciousness) and compulsive buying. Phan et al. (2020) discussed that IB mediates the relationship between materialism and personal financial behavior. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis.
IB mediates the relationship between consumer EI and SWL.
Method
Data Collection
This study was conducted from July to November 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic was at its peak and students were taking classes online. Students from public-sector universities in Pakistan’s twin cities (Islamabad and Rawalpindi) provided the data for this study. This study sought the help of students from various colleges who agreed to take part in virtual data-collection activities. The data were collected from public-sector university graduate students using purposive sampling. They were collected via a variety of social media platforms, including Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Purposive sampling aids in the identification of survey participants who are interested in shopping. The data were gathered online because most university campuses were closed down because of the disruption caused by the COVID-19 virus.
The responses were collected using a survey questionnaire created in Microsoft Word and Google Docs. The questionnaire was written in English and used a 5-point Likert scale. A total of 510 questionnaires were distributed online to identify respondents who were ready to provide feedback, and 498 of them responded within the specified timeframe. After removing the questionnaires that had missing or inaccurate information, 483 valid questionnaires remained for further analysis. According to the demographics, the response rate was 94%, and most respondents (61%) were female. 50% of the respondents were between the ages of 23 and 25 years, and most students (56%) were undergraduates. Furthermore, most survey participants (95.86%) were single and were studying at various universities. Table 1 contains the demographic statistics.
Measurement Scale
Consumer EI
Kidwell et al. (2008) developed the 18-item EI Scale used in this study. All responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The value of Cronbach’s α was 0.683). A sample item of this scale was “Do you feel frustrated when purchasing something expensive and interacting with an incompetent salesperson.”
IB
In this study, we used the impulsive buying behavior scale developed by Rook and Fisher (1995) to measure IB. Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s α was 0.704). A sample item of this scale was “Sometimes I feel like buying things on the spur-of-the-moment.”
SWL
This study used the satisfaction with life scale developed by Pavot and Diener (1993) to measure consumer SWL on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s α was 0.712). A sample item of this scale was “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.”
Data Analysis and Results
Descriptive Statistics
The SPSS-24 version was used for data analysis. First, we checked the data for normality and applied the missing values test. Cronbach’s α reliability (Table 2) was checked for all scales. Mean, minimum, and maximum values of each variable, including demographic items, were derived from descriptive statistical analysis.
Correlation Analysis
Multicollinearity is more likely when the correlation coefficient is greater than 0.70 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). We used Pearson’s correlation to evaluate the correlation between variables and one-way ANOVA for identifying the effect of demographics. In our data, however, the correlation between any two variables is lower than the benchmark, indicating that all measurements in this study are suitable for regression analysis.
Mediation Regression Analysis
The Preacher et al. (2007) mediation approach (path analysis) was used to evaluate mediation by conducting a regression analysis. This is bootstrapping technique demands a large number of samples (5,000), and then for each sample, the indirect effect is computed. Table 2 indicates that consumer EI is significantly correlated to variable SWL (r = 0.181**, p ≤ .01). This supports the first hypothesis that consumer EI has a significant positive relationship with SWL. Also, we showed that consumer EI is significantly correlated to the mediator, IB (r = 0.184**, p ≤ .01), which supports the second hypothesis that consumer EI has a significant relationship with IB behavior. Similarly, the mediator, IB is also significantly correlated to the dependent variable SWL (r = 0.247**, p ≤ .01), which provides initial support to the third hypothesis that IB is significantly correlated to SWL.
We used regression analysis to investigate the hypothesis that IB mediates the effect of consumer EI on satisfaction with life. Table 3 (path a) indicated that consumer EI was a significant predictor of IB, β = 0.2583, SE = 0.0631, p < .05, and that IB was a significant predictor of satisfaction with life, β = 0.5098, SE = 0.1025, p < .05. These results support the mediational hypothesis. The path c shows that consumer EI has positive significant effect on satisfaction with life (β = 0.5876, SE = 0.1453, p < .05). When we introduced the mediator, IB, into the model, consumer EI still significantly and positively affected satisfaction with life, though its strength was reduced, as shown by the reduction of coefficient (β) from 0.5876 to 0.4558 with p-value .0001, which is less than .05 and consistent with partial mediation. Approximately 8.03% of the variance in satisfaction with life was accounted for by the predictors (R2 = 0.0803).
The indirect effect was tested using a bootstrap estimation approach with 5,000 samples. These results indicated the indirect coefficient was significant, β = 0.1328, SE = 0.050, 95% CI = 0.0518, 0.2525. Consumer EI was associated with an approximately 0.13 points higher satisfaction with life scores as mediated by IB. The value zero (0) does not fall between the two limits 0.0518 and 0.2525, which support there being a significant mediation by IB.
Discussion
This study looked into the relationship between consumer IE, IB, and SWL during the COVID-19 pandemic. It examined the roles of EI in customer decision-making as well as its broader implications in a pandemic crisis from a marketing perspective. Overall, its findings supported our proposed theoretical framework by indicating a significant effect of consumer IE on consumer behavior and life satisfaction during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings are also consistent with previous studies in the normal work setting (Nair & Das, 2015; Urquijo et al., 2016).
First, we hypothesized that consumer EI has a direct and positive relationship with SWL. Emotions, in combination with cognitive decision-making models, play an essential role in individual decision-making, and we examined whether this is the case also in the current pandemic crisis caused by COVID-19 (Durante et al., 2021). Emotionally intelligent consumers make proper use of their budget and purchase better quality, efficiently priced products and services, and their emotions predict their consumer choices, as discussed by Bagozzi et al. (1999). Our results supported this hypothesis, consistent as well with a previous study conducted by Sun and Shang (2014), which produced a link between EI and satisfaction, particularly among young consumers (Bhalerao & Sharma, 2017), and this relationship remains significant in the pandemic situation.
Second, we argued that EI has a significant relationship with IB, as found in previous studies by Nair and Das (2015) and Peter and Krishnakumar (2010). Consumer behavior and emotion are influenced by the COVID-19 epidemic (Khan, Hui, Khan, & Soomro, 2021), which may influence IB behavior. Consumers’ shopping experiences during the COVID-19 crisis need to rely on high EI to keep impulsive purchases low.
Third, we argued that IB has an impact on life satisfaction, which our findings supported, showing that greater IB leads to a decrease in overall SWL. The findings of this study are thus consistent with previous research, according to which IB is pleasurable in the short term but leads to anxiety and disappointment in the long run (Fenneman & Frankenhuis, 2020; Hausman, 2000). The present study also indicated that IB negatively impacts consumer satisfaction, as shown in the reported shopping experience of our participants during COVID-19.
Finally, we proposed IB as a mediator between consumer EI and SWL, supported by the study results, which are also consistent with previous empirical evidence (Runcan & Iovu, 2013). This leads to the conclusion that if emotions related to buying are properly managed, controlled, and regulated in a pandemic situation, customers have a higher level of overall life satisfaction. In short, the distinctiveness of this study lies in demonstrating the significant impact of EI during the horrific scenario produced by the COVID-19 pandemic on IB behavior of young students in their shopping experience, resulting in increased life satisfaction.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
On the theoretical side, this study extends the work of Peter and Krishnakumar (2010) as well as Nair and Das (2015) to explore the relationship between consumer IE and IB and SWL. It also introduces IB as a distinctive mediator to link consumer EI and consumer SWL. The mediation of IB is supported in a previous study by Saad and Metawie, (2015) where IB tendency acts as a mediating variable between environmental factors, personality factors, and impulse buying behaviors. Mediation of IB is also supported in a study by Rook and Fisher (1995b). Overall, the findings of this study confirmed all hypotheses, specifically that IB mediates the relationship between consumer EI and SWL in the retail context.
Our work also has implications for managers. Regarding Corona, the proper regulation of emotions assists consumers in choosing better products (particularly food) and service choices (De Hooge, 2014). This observation can aid marketers to identify consumer behavior during COVID-19, segmenting markets, and interacting with a specific market segment by building a customer-focused marketing mix (the 4 Ps). In the current pandemic situation, in retailing EI plays a significant role in developing product displays and assortments so that store managers can promote impulsive and emotional buying, resulting in increased sales. If salespeople, however, are appropriately trained in emotional management (Khan, Khan, & Bodla, 2021), they can assist customers to reach their buying goals while recognizing and controlling their emotions.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
Like most others, this study has some limitations and constraints. First, it used purposive sampling rather than a random sample, which may have equally restricted the participation of all consumers. Second, this study also used a sample of university students rather than customers from the general community. Therefore, the findings may have a generalizability issue. Future studies can address the issue of generalizability by increasing the sample size and using demographics other than university graduates, especially in the retail industry, to acquire more accurate results. Third, data were collected from respondents via a variety of online and social media platforms, which may have stifled respondents’ eagerness to record their responses because of a lack of physical presence of interviewers/data collectors to adequately explain specific construct statements.
Similarly, data collection via social media platforms has various advantages, although in developing countries such as Pakistan, poor internet connections may limit the quality of data collected in that manner. Fourth, this study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, when buyers had a different experience than usual. Its findings cannot be applied to a normal consumer scenario. Finally, this study used a cross-sectional design, and the data were gathered only once. It is exploratory in nature and cannot predict a true causal relationship between variables. On the other hand, future studies could use a longitudinal design to predict a causal relationship between the proposed study variables in the same or a different setting. Furthermore, more research should be done using marketing-relevant customer satisfaction as the dependent variable rather than the general Life Satisfaction Scale to obtain more realistic consumer-related results in terms of EI considering the COVID-19 pandemic state.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted every facet of human life, including cognitive function. This study’s goal was to investigate the link between consumer IE, IB, and life satisfaction during the pandemic crisis. The study’s hypotheses were supported by the findings, which helps to provide a better understanding of the factors that influence consumer life satisfaction.
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