A Theoretical Approach to Resolving the Psychometric Problems Associated With the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
Results From the USA, Australia, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom
Abstract
Abstract. The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) assesses five time-related constructs – Past Negative (PN), Past Positive (PP), Present Fatalistic (PF), Present Hedonistic (PF), and Future (F) – and is one of the most frequently used time measures in the extant literature. Versions of the ZTPI have been translated into a variety of languages, but the psychometric support for ZTPI scores remains contested. We examined the internal consistency, structural validity, and convergent validity of scores on a version of the ZTPI that consisted only of items that specifically referenced time constructs, the ZTPI-TP. Participants consisted of five samples of adolescents and adults from four countries: Australia (653 adults), Slovenia (425 adolescents and adults), the United Kingdom (913 adolescents; 455 adults), and the United States (815 adolescents). Structural validity analyses provided stronger support for ZTPI-TP scores than for ZTPI scores, and convergent validity evidence also provided support for ZTPI-TP scores. However, analyses revealed that the PF and PH factors were still problematic, especially with regard to factor coefficients and internal consistency estimates. We concluded that the ZTPI-TP can form the basis for a more robust version of the ZTPI.
References
2005). Validation of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (Audit) as a screening tool for alcohol-related problems among Nigerian university students. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 40, 575–577. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agh197.
(2013). Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (ATAS) scores and academic outcomes in secondary school females in New Zealand. International Journal of Quantitative Research in Education, 1, 251–274. doi: 10.1504/IJQRE.2013.057687.
(2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
(2004). Validation française de l’échelle de temporalité the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI).
([French validation of the temporal scale the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI)] Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée, 54, 207–217.2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 397–438. doi: 10.1080/10705510903008204.
(2006). On the performance of maximum likelihood versus means and variance adjusted weighted least squares estimation in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling, 13, 186–203. doi: 10.1207/s15328007sem1302_2.
(2002). EQS 6 for Windows: User’s guide. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.
(2002). The validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale: An updated literature review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 52, 69–77. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3999(01)00296-3.
(1992). The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452–459. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452.
(2011). Development and validation of the Swedish Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 27, 220–227. doi: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000076.
(2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.
(1992). A first course in factor analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2001). Normative data for the HADS from a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 429–434. doi: 10.1348/014466501163904.
(2009). Time orientation and health-related behaviour: Measurement in general population samples. Psychology and Health, 24, 333–350. doi: 10.1080/08870440701813030.
(2003). Testing Zimbardo’s Stanford Time Perspective Inventory (SPTI) – Short Form: An Italian study. Time and Society, 12, 333–347.
(2009). Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): An updated systematic review of psychometric properties. Psychology and Neuroscience, 2, 83–97. doi: 10.3922/j.psns.2009.1.12.
(2006). Estructura factorial y fiabilidad del Inventario de Perspectiva Temporal de Zimbardo.
([Factorial Structure and Reliability of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] Psicothema, 18, 565–571.2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 350–365. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.350.
(2003).
(Testing and assessment in cross-cultural psychology . In V. J. R. GrahamJ. A. NaglieriI. B. WeinerEds., Handbook of psychology – Vol. 10: Assessment psychology (pp. 95–119). NJ: Wiley.1997). An item response theory analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 443–451. doi: 10.1177/0146167297235001.
(2005). The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment-Revised (IPPA-R) for children: A psychometric investigation. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 12, 67–79. doi: 10.1002/cpp.433.
(2011). Masking misfit in confirmatory factor analysis by increasing unique variances: A cautionary note on the usefulness of cutoff values of fit indices. Psychological Methods, 16, 319–336. doi: 10.1037/a0024917.
(1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modelling, 6, 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118.
(2005). International guidelines on test and adaptation, Retrieved from www.intestcom.org
(2008). Consideration of future consequences, ego-depletion, and self-control: Support for distinguishing between CFC-immediate and CFC-future sub-scales. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 15–21. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.02.011.
(2012). Promotion orientation explains why future-oriented people exercise and eat healthy: Evidence from the two-factor Consideration of Future Consequences-14 Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1272–1287. doi: 10.1177/0146167212449362.
(1999). Who’s smoking, drinking, and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use. Basic and Applied Psychology, 21, 149–164. doi: 10.1207/S15324834BA210207.
(2013). Relating values and consideration of future and immediate consequences to consumer preference for biofuels: A three-dimensional social dilemma analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 34, 97–108. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.01.001.
(2013). Identity status differences among Italian adolescents: Associations with time perspective. Children and Youth Services Review, 35, 482–487.
(2005).
(Time orientation measurement: A conceptual approach . In A. StrathmanJ. JoiremanEds., Understanding behavior in the context of time: Theory, research, & application (pp. 11–30). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 11, 320–341. doi: 10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2.
(2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling, integrating CFA and EFA: Application to students’ evaluations of university teaching. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 439–476. doi: 10.1080/10705510903008220.
(1992). The validity and relative precision of MOS short and long form Health Status Scales and Dartmouth COOP charts: Results from the medical outcomes study. Medical Care, 30, 253–265.
(2014). What do temporal profiles tell us about adolescent alcohol use? Results from a large sample in the United Kingdom. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 1319–1328. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.09.008.
(2014). A critical examination of the reliability and validity of the SZTPI-15 in British, American and Australian samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 69, 168–172. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.030.
(2015). Less is not always more: The case of the 36-item short form of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 68–71. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.018.
(2008). Power and sensitivity of alternate fit indices in tests of measurement invariance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 568–592. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.568.
(2008). Testing Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory in a Brazilian sample. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia, 42, 49–58.
(1998–2012). Mplus User’s Guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
(2013). Factorial validity of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 587–592. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.020.
(2007). The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: An update of research findings. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31, 185–199. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00295.x.
(1989). Society and the adolescent self-image, (Rev. ed.). Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
(1993). Development of the Alcohol Use disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption-II. Addiction, 88, 791–804. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02093.x.
(1998). The importance of future time perspective in theories of work motivation. Journal of Psychology, 132, 154–168. doi: 10.1080/00223989809599156.
(2009). Conceptualization and measurement of temporal focus: The subjective experience of the past, present, and future. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 110, 1–22. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.05.001.
(2014). A global look at time: A 24-country study of equivalence of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. SAGE Open, 4, 1–12. doi: 10.1177/2158244013515686.
(1994). HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Windsor, Canada: NFER Nelson.
(Stolarski M.Fieulaine N.van Beek W. (2015). Time perspective theory: Review, research, and application. Essays in honor of Phillip G. Zimbardo. Zug, Switzerland: Springer.
1994). The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 742–752. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.742.
(2003). Starting at the beginning: An introduction to coefficient alpha and internal consistency. Journal of Personality Assessment, 80, 99–103. doi: 10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_18.
(2003).
(Understanding reliability and coefficient alpha, really . In B. ThompsonEd., Score reliability: Contemporary thinking on reliability issues (pp. 3–23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.1984). Health status and the use of outpatient mental health services. American Psychologist, 39, 1090–1100. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.39.10.1090.
(2013). Exploratory structural equation modeling, bifactor models, and standard confirmatory factor analysis models: Application to the BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System Teacher Form. Journal of School Psychology, 51, 751–763. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2013.09.001.
(2007). The reliability and validity of Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scores in academically talented adolescents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 67, 487–504. doi: 10.1177/0013164406296985.
(2013). Introducing English and German versions of the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (ATAS). Assessment, 4, 496–510. doi: 10.1177/1073191110396202.
(2013). Validating a brief measure of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Time and Society, 22, 391–409. doi: 10.1177/0961463X12441174.
(1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67, 361–370. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.
(1999). Time perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271–1288. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1271.
(