Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Articles and Reviews

The Impact of COVID-19 on the Majority Population, Ethno-Racial Minorities, and Immigrants

A Systematic Literature Review on Threat Appraisals From an Inter-Group Perspective

Published Online:January 05, 2022https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000460

Abstract

Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic constitutes an unprecedented threat for individuals and societies, revealing stark inequalities in preparedness, exposure, and consequences. The present systematic literature review complements extant knowledge on disasters and pandemic diseases with programmatic research on the COVID-19 pandemic. Building upon an integrative definition of threat, we merge intra-personal threat regulation with group dynamics and inter-group relations. Via streamlined methods of knowledge synthesis, we first map out a broad taxonomy of threats, as appraised by the majority population and ethno-racial and immigrant minorities. Second, we delve into research linking threat appraisals with either conflict or prosociality within and across group boundaries. To conclude, we propose some guidelines for researchers to involve ethno-racial and immigrant minorities actively and for societies to cope cohesively with the impact of COVID-19.

References

  • Abedi, V., Olulana, O., Avula, V., Chaudhary, D., Khan, A., Shahjouei, S., Li, J., & Zand, R. (2020). Racial, economic, and health inequality and COVID-19 infection in the United States. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8, 732–742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00833-4 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ahorsu, D. K., Lin, C. Y., Imani, V., Saffari, M., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2020). The Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Anderson, J., Lüders, A., Sankaran, S., Green, E., & Politi, E. (2021, July 21). The COVID-19 Multifaceted Threat Scale. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/jfgvr First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Anderson-Carpenter, K. D., & Neal, Z. P. (2021). Racial disparities in COVID-19 impacts in Michigan, USA. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00939-9 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Andrighetto, L., Vezzali, L., Bergamini, G., Nadi, C., & Giovannini, D. (2016). Inside the earthquake: Perceived disaster exposure and helping intentions among Italian and immigrant victims of the 2012 Italian earthquakes. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 19, 753–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430215591040 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Arpaci, I., Karataş, K., & Baloğlu, M. (2020). The development and initial tests for the psychometric properties of the COVID-19 Phobia Scale (C19P-S). Personality and Individual Differences, 164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110108 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Asbrock, F., & Fritsche, I. (2013). Authoritarian reactions to terrorist threat: Who is being threatened, the me or the We? International Journal of Psychology, 48, 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.695075 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Branscombe, N. R., Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (1999). The context and content of social identity threat. In N. EllemersR. SpearsB. DoosjeEds., Social identity: Context, commitment, content (pp. 35–58). Blackwell. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brown, R. L., Richman, J. A., Moody, M. D., & Rospenda, K. M. (2019). Alcohol-related effects of POST-9/11 discrimination in the context of the great recession: Race/ethnic variation. Addictive Behaviors, 93, 154–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.01.019 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Chen, A. C. C., Keith, V. M., Airriess, C., Wei, L., & Leong, K. J. (2007). Economic vulnerability, discrimination, and hurricane Katrina: Health among black Katrina survivors in Eastern New Orleans. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 13, 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390307307260 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Coelho, C. M., Suttiwan, P., Arato, N., & Zsido, A. N. (2020). On the nature of fear and anxiety triggered by COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.581314 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Crabtree, A. (2013). Questioning psychosocial resilience after flooding and the consequences for disaster risk reduction. Social Indicators Research, 113, 711–728. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0297-8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Dhanani, L. Y., & Franz, B. (2021). Why public health framing matters: An experimental study of the effects of COVID-19 framing on prejudice and xenophobia in the United States. Social Science and Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113572 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Demirtaş-Madran, H. A. (2020). Exploring the motivation behind discrimination and stigmatization related to COVID-19: A social psychological discussion based on the main theoretical explanations. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.569528 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Doise, W. (1986). Levels of explanation in social psychology. Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Dougall, A. L., Herberman, H. B., Delahanty, D. L., Inslicht, S. S., & Baum, A. (2000). Similarity of prior trauma exposure as a determinant of chronic stress responding to an airline disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 290–295. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.290 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Drury, J., Cocking, C., & Reicher, S. (2009). Everyone for themselves? A comparative study of crowd solidarity among emergency survivors. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 487–506. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466608X357893 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Durkheim, E. (1897/1987). Suicide (A. Spaulding, & G. Simpson, Trans.) Routledge & Kegan Paul. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • ECDC. 2020 Rapid risk assessment: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the EU/EEA and the UK – tenth update. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/rapid-risk-assessment-coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-pandemic-tenth-update First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Elisabeth, M., Maneesh, P. S., & Michael, S. (2020). Refugees in Sweden during the Covid-19 pandemic – The need for a new perspective on health and integration. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 6–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.574334 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fairlamb, S., & Cinnirella, M. (2021). To be or not to be tolerant? A Terror Management perspective exploring the ideological dilemma of tolerance and prejudice. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60, 360–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12407 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Feng, L., Dong, Z. J., Yan, R. Y., Wu, X. Q., Zhang, L., Ma, J., & Zeng, Y. (2020). Psychological distress in the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic: Preliminary development of an assessment scale. Psychiatry Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113202 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., Horwood, L. J., & Mulder, R. T. (2015). Perceptions of distress and positive consequences following exposure to a major disaster amongst a well-studied cohort. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867414560652 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Golec de Zavala, A., Bierwiaczonek, K., Baran, T., Keenan, O., & Hase, A. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic, authoritarianism, and rejection of sexual dissenters in Poland. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000446 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gonzales, R. G., Suárez-Orozco, C., & Dedios-Sanguineti, M. C. (2013). No place to belong: Contextualizing concepts of mental health among undocumented immigrant youth in the United States. American Behavioral Scientist, 57, 1174–1199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213487349 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Green, E. G. T., Krings, F., Staerklé, C., Bangerter, A., Clémence, A., Wagner-Egger, P., & Bornand, T. (2010). Keeping the vermin out: Perceived disease threat and ideological orientations as predictors of exclusionary immigration attitudes. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 20, 299–316. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.1037 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Greysen, S. R., Horwitz, L. I., Covinsky, K. E., Gordon, K., Ohl, M. E., & Justice, A. C. (2013). Does social isolation predict hospitalization and mortality among HIV+ and uninfected older veterans? Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 61, 1456–1463. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.12410 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Guerra, C., Cumsille, P., & Martínez, M. L. (2014). Post-traumatic stress symptoms in adolescents exposed to an earthquake: Association with self-efficacy, perceived magnitude, and fear. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 14, 202–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2014.05.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Heir, T., Blix, I., & Knatten, C. K. (2016). Thinking that one’s life was in danger: Perceived life threat in individuals directly or indirectly exposed to terror. British Journal of Psychiatry, 209, 306–310. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.115.170167 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hossain, M. M., Sultana, A., & Purohit, N. (2020). Mental health outcomes of quarantine and isolation for infection prevention: A systematic umbrella review of the global evidence. Epidemiology and Health, 42. https://doi.org/10.4178/epih.e2020038 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Irshad, M., Khattak, S. A., Hassan, M. M., Majeed, M., & Bashir, S. (2020). How perceived threat of Covid-19 causes turnover intention among Pakistani nurses: A moderation and mediation analysis. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12775 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Jonas, E., McGregor, I., Klackl, J., Agroskin, D., Fritsche, I., Holbrook, C., Nash, K., Proulx, T., & Quirin, M. (2014). Threat and defense. From anxiety to approach. In M. P. ZannaEd., Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 49, pp. 219–286). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978–0-12–800052-6.00004-4 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kachanoff, F., Bigman, Y. E., Kapsaskis, K., & Gray, K. (2020). Measuring realistic and symbolic threat of COVID-19 and their unique impact on well-being and adherence to public health behaviors. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(5), 603–616. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kalengayi, F. K. N., Hurtig, A. K., Ahlm, C., & Krantz, I. (2012). Fear of deportation may limit legal immigrants’ access to HIV/AIDS-related care: A survey of Swedish language school students in Northern Sweden. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 14, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-011-9509-y First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kim, M., & Chang, H. (2014). An investigation of Korean children’s prejudicial attitudes toward a national tragedy in Japan. Journal of Moral Education, 43, 282–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2014.920307 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kinzie, J. D. (2008). Some of the effects of terrorism on refugees. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 9, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v09n03_12 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Alhuwailah, A., Ashby, J. S., Sous Fahmy Sous, M., Baali, S. B. A., Azdaou, C., Oliemat, E. M., & Jamil, H. J. (2020). The effects of COVID-19 and collective identity trauma (intersectional discrimination) on social status and well-being. Traumatology, https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000289 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Rice, K. G., Ashby, J. S., Elwakeel, S. A., Sous, M. S. F., Alhuwailah, A., Baali, S. B. A., Azdaou, C., Oliemat, E. M., & Jamil, H. J. (2020). Measuring COVID-19 as Traumatic Stress: Initial Psychometrics and Validation. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2020.1790160 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Major, B., & O’Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393–421. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 342, 976–981. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1246799 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Marinucci, M., & Riva, P. (2020). Surrendering to social emptiness: Chronic social exclusion longitudinally predicts resignation in asylum seekers. British Journal of Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12410 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Martiniello, M., & Rea, A. (2014). The concept of migratory careers: Elements for a new theoretical perspective of contemporary human mobility. Current Sociology, 62, 1079–1096. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392114553386 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McFarlane, A. C. (2010). The long-term costs of traumatic stress: Intertwined physical and psychological consequences. World Psychiatry, 9, 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00254.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Marques, J. M., Abrams, D., Paez, D., & Martinez-Taboada, C. (1998). The role of categorization and in-group norms in judgments of groups and their members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 976–988. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.976 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mertens, G., Duijndam, S., Smeets, T., & Lodder, P. (2021). The latent and item structure of COVID-19 fear: A comparison of four COVID-19 fear questionnaires using SEM and network analyses. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102415 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., Altman, D., Antes, G., Atkins, D., Barbour, V., Barrowman, N., Berlin, J. A., Clark, J., Clarke, M., Cook, D., D’Amico, R., Deeks, J. J., Devereaux, P. J., Dickersin, K., Egger, M., Ernst, E., … Tugwell, P. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2014). Scarcity: The true cost of not having enough. Penguin. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Muthukrishna, M., Bell, A. V., Henrich, J., Curtin, C. M., Gedranovich, A., McInerney, J., & Thue, B. (2020). Beyond Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) psychology: Measuring and mapping scales of cultural and psychological distance. Psychological Science, 31, 678–701. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620916782 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nisa, C. F., Bélanger, J. J., Faller, D. G., Buttrick, N. R., Mierau, J. O., Austin, M. M. K., Schumpe, B. M., Sasin, E. M., Agostini, M., Gützkow, B., Kreienkamp, J., Abakoumkin, G., Abdul Khaiyom, J. H., Ahmedi, V., Akkas, H., Almenara, C. A., Atta, M., Bagci, S. C., Basel, S., … Leander, N. P. (2021). Lives versus livelihoods? Perceived economic risk has a stronger association with support for COVID-19 preventive measures than perceived health risk. Scientific Reports, 11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88314-4 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Oswald, D. L. (2005). Understanding anti-Arab reactions post-9/11: The role of threats, social categories, and personal ideologies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 1775–1799. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02195.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Piwowarczyk, L. A., & Keane, T. M. (2007). Impact of September 11 on refugees and those seeking asylum. Transcultural Psychiatry, 44, 566–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461507083897 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Politi, E., & Roblain, A. (2021). Refugee committee: Moving beyond the COVID-19 outbreak. KU Leuven. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.35224.11521 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Politi, E., Van Assche, J., Caprara, G. V., & Phalet, K. (2020). No man is an island: Psychological underpinnings of prosociality in the midst of the COVID-19 outbreak. Personality and Individual Differences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110534 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rathbone, J., Hoffmann, T., & Glasziou, P. (2015). Faster title and abstract screening? Evaluating Abstrackr, a semi-automated online screening program for systematic reviewers. Systematic Reviews, 4, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-015-0067-6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ritchie, L. A. (2012). Individual stress, collective trauma, and social capital in the wake of the Exxon valdez oil spill. Sociological Inquiry, 82, 187–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2012.00416.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rogers, A. H., Bogiaizian, D., Salazar, P. L., Solari, A., Garey, L., Fogle, B. M., Schmidt, N. B., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2021). COVID-19 and anxiety sensitivity across two studies in Argentina: Associations with COVID-19 worry, symptom severity, anxiety, and functional impairment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10194-1 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Romero, M. (2008). Crossing the immigration and race border: A critical race theory approach to immigration studies. Contemporary Justice Review, 11, 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580701850371 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rousseau, C., Hassan, G., Moreau, N., & Thombs, B. D. (2011). Perceived discrimination and its association with psychological distress among newly arrived immigrants before and after September 11, 2001. American Journal of Public Health, 101(5), 909–915. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.173062 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitating of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037110003-066X.55.1.68 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Salyer, J. L. H., Walusimbi, M. L., & Fitzpatrick, J. J. (2008). Knowledge and attitudes of Ugandan midwives regarding HIV. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 19, 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2008.01.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sears, D. O., Sidanius, J., & Bobo, L. (2000). Racialized politics: The debate about racism in America. University of Chicago Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Shalev, A. (2006). Psychological responses to continuous terror: A study of two communities in Israel. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 667. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.667 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Şimşir, Z., Koç, H., Seki, T., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021). The relationship between fear of COVID-19 and mental health problems: A meta-analysis. Death Studies, https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2021.1889097 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Sirin, S. R., & Fine, M. (2007). Hyphenated selves: Muslim Aamerican youth negotiating identities on the fault lines of global conflict. Applied Developmental Science, 11, 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888690701454658 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Smid, G. E., Drogendijk, A. N., Knipscheer, J., Boelen, P. A., & Kleber, R. J. (2018). Loss of loved ones or home due to a disaster: Effects over time on distress in immigrant ethnic minorities. Transcultural Psychiatry, 55, 648–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461518784355 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., & Morrison, K. R. (2009). Intergroup threat theory. In T. D. NelsonEd., Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 43–60). Psychology Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Stutterheim, S. E., Shiripinda, I., Bos, A. E. R., Pryor, J. B., De Bruin, M., Nellen, J. F. J. B., Kok, G., Prins, J. M., & Schaalma, H. P. (2011). HIV status disclosure among HIV-positive African and Afro-Caribbean people in the Netherlands. AIDS Care – Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 23, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2010.498873 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tabri, N., Hollingshead, S. J., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2020, March 31). Framing Covid-19 as an existential threat predicts anxious arousal and prejudice. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/mpbtr First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Taylor, S., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., Fergus, T. A., McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2020). Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 72, Article 102232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102232 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tedeschi, R. G., Park, C., & Calhoun, L. G. (1998). Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. Erlbaum. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Teymoori, A., Bastian, B., & Jetten, J. (2017). Towards a psychological analysis of anomie. Political Psychology, 38, 1009–1023. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12377 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tricco, A. C., Langlois, E. V., & Straus, S. E. (2017). Rapid reviews to strengthen health policy and systems: A practical guide. World Health Organisation. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Van Assche, J., Politi, E., Van Dessel, P., & Phalet, K. (2020). To punish or to assist? Divergent reactions to ingroup and outgroup members disobeying social distancing. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59, 594–606. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12395 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Van de Vyver, J., Houston, D. M., Abrams, D., & Vasiljevic, M. (2016). Boosting belligerence: How the July 7, 2005, London bombings affected liberals’ moral foundations and prejudice. Psychological Science, 27, 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615615584 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Van Leeuwen, E. (2007). Restoring identity through outgroup helping: Beliefs about international aid in response to the December 2004 tsunami. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 661–671. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.389 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of psychotherapy integration, 23, 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vezzali, L., Versari, A., Cadamuro, A., Trifiletti, E., & Di Bernardo, G. A. (2018). Out-group threats and distress as antecedents of common in-group identity among majority and minority group members in the aftermath of a natural disaster. International Journal of Psychology, 53, 417–425. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12406 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vollhardt, J. R., & Staub, E. (2011). Inclusive altruism born of suffering: The relationship between adversity and prosocial attitudes and behavior toward disadvantaged outgroups. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 307–315. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01099.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vuori, M. (2016). Revisiting local responses to mass violence. Journal of Risk Research, 19, 515–532. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2014.1003317 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • WHO. (2020). Apart together survey: Preliminary overview of refugees and migrants self-reported impact of COVID-19. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/aparttogether-survey-preliminary-overview-refugees-and-migrants-self-reported-impact First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wu, C., Qian, Y., & Wilkes, R. (2021). Anti-Asian discrimination and the Asian-white mental health gap during COVID-19. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44, 819–835. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1851739 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Yako, R. M., & Biswas, B. (2014). “We came to this country for the future of our children. We have no future”: Acculturative stress among Iraqi refugees in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 38, 133–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.08.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zagefka, H. (2021). Intergroup helping during the coronavirus crisis: Effects of group identification, ingroup blame and third-party outgroup blame. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 31, 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2487 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zeppegno, P., Gramaglia, C., Guerriero, C., Madeddu, F., & Calati, R. (2020, May 17). Lessons learnt from China and call for timely crisis Interventions in Italy. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/z26 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar