Skip to main content
Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1024/0044-3514.38.1.33

Zusammenfassung. Gemäß der Theorie des regulatorischen Fokus (RFT; Higgins, 1997) können Personen Ziele über zwei unterschiedliche selbstregulative Systeme erreichen: indem sie entweder ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf das Erreichen von Idealen und Gewinnen richten und so genannte Promotionsstrategien einsetzen (Promotionsfokus) oder aber sich auf die Erfüllung ihrer Verantwortlichkeiten und Pflichten konzentrieren und dabei so genannte Preventionsstrategien verwenden (Preventionsfokus). Der vorliegende Beitrag gibt einen Überblick der derzeitigen Befundlage zur RFT.


Regulatory Focus - An Overview

Abstract. According to the regulatory focus theory (RFT; Higgins, 1997) individuals can reach goals through two varying self-regulatory systems: either by focusing on their ideals and profit whereby they use promotion strategies (promotion focus) or by focusing on their responsibilities and duties whereby prevention strategies are being used (prevention focus). In regard to these foci, individuals differ in their chronic disposition and in their situative focus caused by environmental/situational factors. In the following paper an overview of the RFT is given.

References

  • Aaker, J.L. , Lee, A.Y. (2001). “I” seek pleasures and “we” avoid pains: The role of self-regulatory goals in information processing and persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 33– 49 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Atkinson, J.W. (1964). An introduction to motivation . Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Avnet, T. , Higgins, E.T. (2003). Locomotion, assessment, and regulatory fit: Value transfer from “how” to “what”. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 525– 530 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brockner, J. , Higgins, E.T. (2001). Regulatory focus theory: Implications for the study of emotions at work. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86, 35– 66 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brown, J.S. (1948). Gradients of approach and avoidance responses and their relation to level of motivation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 41, 450– 465 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Camacho, C.J. , Higgins, E.T. , Luger, L. (2003). Moral value transfer from regulatory fit: What feels right is right and what feels wrong is wrong. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 498– 510 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Cesario, J. , Grant, H. , Higgins, E.T. (2004). Regulatory fit and persuasion: Transfer from “feeling right”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 338– 404 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Crowe, E. , Higgins, E.T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 117– 132 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Florack, A. , Scarabis, M. , Gosejohann, S. (2005). Regulatory focus and consumer information processing. In F.R. Kardes, P.M. Herr & J. Nantel (Eds.), Applying social cognition to consumer-focused strategy (pp. 235-263). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Denzler, M. (im Druck). Kreativität. In J. Funke & P. Frensch (Hrsg.), Handbuch der Psychologie, Band “Allgemeine Psychologie”. Berlin: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Friedman, R. , Özelsel, A. , Denzler, M. im Druck Enactment of approach and avoidance behavior influences the scope of perceptual and conceptual attention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Friedman, R. (2003). Kontextabhängige Kreativität. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 211, 149– 160 . First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Grant, H. , Idson, L.C. , Higgins, E.T. (2001). Success/failure feedback, expectancies, and approach/avoidance motivation: How regulatory focus moderates classic relations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 253– 260 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Higgins, E.T. (2005). How global versus local perception fits regulatory focus. Psychological Science, 16, 631– 636 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Higgins, E.T. , Idson, L.C. (1998). Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the “goal looms larger” effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1115– 1131 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Higgins, E.T. , Taylor Bianco, A. (2003). Speed/accuracy in performance: Tradeoff in decision making or separate strategic concerns?. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90, 148– 164 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Förster, J. , Higgins, E.T. , Werth, L. (2004). How threat from stereotype disconfirmation triggers self-defense. Social Cognition, 22, 54– 74 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Freitas, A.L. , Higgins, E.T. (2002). Enjoying goal-directed action: The role of regulatory fit. Psychological Science, 13, 1– 6 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Freitas, A.L. , Liberman, N. , Higgins, E.T. (2002). Regulatory fit and resisting temptation during goal pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 291– 298 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Freitas, A.L. , Liberman, N. , Salovey, P. , Higgins, E.T. (2002). When to begin? Regulatory focus and initiating goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 121– 130 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Freud, S. (1923). Das Ich und das Es . GW XIII . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Friedman, R.S. (1999). The phenomenological correlates and consequences of distinct self-regulatory systems . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Friedman, R.S. , Förster, J. (2000). The effects of approach and avoidance motor actions on the elements of creative insight. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 477– 492 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Friedman, R.S. , Förster, J. (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1001– 1013 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Friedman, R.S. , Förster, J. (2002). The influence of approach and avoidance motor actions on creative cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 41– 55 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Friedman, R.S. , Förster, J. (2005). Effects of motivational cues on perceptual asymmetry: Implications for creativity and analytical problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 263– 275 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Galinsky, A.D. , Leonardelli, G.L. , Okhuysen, G.A. , Mussweiler, T. (2005). Regulatory focus at the bargaining table: Promoting distributive and integrative success. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1– 12 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Galinsky, A.D. , Mussweiler, T. (2001). First offers as anchors: The role of perspective-taking and negotiator focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 657– 669 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Gray, J.A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Behavioural Brain Sciences, 5, 469– 84 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. (1989). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319– 340 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280– 1300 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55, 1217– 1230 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. (2002). How self-regulation creates distinct values: The case of promotion and prevention decision making. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12, 177– 191 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Bond, R.N. , Klein, R. , Strauman, T. (1986). Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 5– 15 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Friedman, R.S. , Harlow, R.E. , Idson, L.C. , Ayduk, O.N. , Taylor, A. (2001). Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success. Promotion pride versus prevention pride. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 3– 23 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Grant, H. , Shah, J. (1999). Self-regulation and quality of life: Emotional and non-emotional life experiences. In D. Kahnemann, E. Diener & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 244-266). New York: Russell Sage Foundation . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Idson, L.C. , Freitas, A.L. , Spiegel, S. , Molden, D.C. (2003). Transfer of value from fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1140– 1153 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Roney, C. , Crowe, E. , Hymes, C. (1994). Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 276– 286 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Shah, J. , Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 515– 525 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Spiegel, S. (2004). Promotion and prevention strategies for self-regulation: A motivated cognition perspective. In K. Vohs & R.F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 171-187). New York: Guilford . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Higgins, E.T. , Tykocinski, O. (1992). Self-discrepancies and biographical memory: Personality and cognition at the level of psychological situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 527– 535 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Idson, L.C. (2002). Regulatory fit: Effects on strategic choice, motivational intensity, and value. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 62 (10-B), First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Idson, L.C. , Liberman, N. , Higgins, E.T. (2000). Distinguishing gains from non-losses and losses from non-gains: A regulatory focus perspective on hedonic intensity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 252– 274 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Kahneman, D. , Knetsch, J.L. , Thaler, R.H. (1991). The endowment effect, losing aversion, and status quo bias: Anomalies. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5, 193– 206 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Kuhl, J. (2000). A functional-design approach to motivation and self-regulation: The dynamics of personality systems interactions. In M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 111-169). San Diego, CA: Academic Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kuhl, J. (2001). Motivation und Persönlichkeit. Interaktionen psychischer Systeme . Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kuhl, J. , Beckmann, J. (1994). Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation . Toronto/Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Lee, A.Y. , Aaker, J.L. (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 205– 218 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lee, A.Y. , Aaker, J.L. , Gardner, W.L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1122– 1134 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Leung, C.M. , Lam, S. F. (2003). The effects of regulatory focus on teachers' classroom management strategies and emotional consequences. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 114– 125 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Levine, J.M. , Higgins, E.T. , Choi, H.S. (2000). Development of strategic norms in groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82, 88– 101 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Levine, J.M. , Moreland, R.L. (1998). Small groups. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 415-469). Boston: McGraw-Hill . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Liberman, N. , Idson, L.C. , Camacho, C.J. , Higgins, E.T. (1999). Promotion and prevention choices between stability and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1135– 1145 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Liberman, N. , Molden, D.M. , Idson, L.C. , Higgins, E.T. (2001). Promotion and prevention focus on alternative hypotheses: A regulatory focus perspective on attributional functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1135– 1145 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lockwood, P. , Chasteen, A.L. , Wong, C. (2005). Age and regulatory focus determine preferences for health-related role models. Psychology and Aging, 20, 367– 389 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lockwood, P. , Jordan, C.H. , Kunda, Z. (2002). Motivation by positive or negative role models: Regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 854– 864 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lockwood, P. , Marshall, T.C. , Sadler, P. (2005). Promoting success or preventing failure: Cultural differences in motivation by positive or negative role models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 379– 392 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lockwood, P. , Sadler, P. , Fyman, K. , Tuck, S. (2004). To do or not to do: Using positive or negative role models to harness motivation. Social Cognition, 22, 422– 450 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McClelland, D.C. (1961). The achieving society . Princeton NJ: Van Nostrand . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • McClelland, D.C. (1985). How motives, skills, and values determine what people do. American Psychologist, 40, 812– 825 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Miller, N.E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In J. McVicker Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 431-465). New York: Ronald . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mowrer, O.H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior . New York: Wiley . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Murray, H.A. (1938). Explorations in personality . New York: Oxford University Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pfaffmann, C. (1960). The pleasures of sensation. Psychological Reviews, 4, 253– 268 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Pham, M. , Avnet, T. (2004). Ideals and oughts and the reliance on affect versus substance in persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 503– 518 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Roese, N.J. , Hur, T. , Pennington, G.L. (1999). Counterfactual thinking and regulatory focus: Implications for action versus inaction and sufficiency versus necessity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1109– 1120 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Roney, C.J.R. , Higgins, E.T. , Shah, J. (1995). Goals and framing: How outcome focus influences motivation and emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1151– 1160 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Safer, D.A. (1998). Preference for luxurious or reliable products. Promotion and prevention focus as moderators . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Sassenberg, K. , Kessler, T. , Mummendey, A. (2003). Less negative = more positive? Social discrimination as avoidance or approach. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 48– 58 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Seibt, B. , Förster, J. (2004). Stereotype threat and performance: How self-stereotypes influence processing by inducing regulatory foci. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 38– 56 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Semin, G.R. , Higgins, E.T. , DeMontes, L.G. , Estourget, Y. , Valencia, J.F. (2005). Linguistic signatures of regulatory focus: How abstraction fits promotion more than prevention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 36– 45 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Shah, J.Y. , Brazy, P.C. , Higgins, E.T. (2004). Promoting us or preventing them: Regulatory focus and manifestations of intergroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 433– 446 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Shah, J. , Higgins, E.T. (1997). Expectancy x value effects: Regulatory focus as determinant of magnitude and direction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 447– 458 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Shah, J. , Higgins, E.T. (2001). Regulatory concerns and appraisal efficiency: The general impact of promotion and prevention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 693– 705 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Straumann, T.J. , Higgins, E.T. (1998). Self-discrepancies as predictors of vulnerability to distinct syndromes of chronic emotional distress. Journal of Personality, 56, 685– 707 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tversky, A. , Kahneman, D. (1991). Loss aversion in riskless choice: A reference dependent model. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106, 1039– 1061 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Van Dijk, D. , Kluger, A.N. (2004). Feedback sign effect on motivation: Is it moderated by regulatory focus?. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53, 113– 135 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wang, W.Z. , Qu, R.J. , Lu, D.L. , Luo, Y.J. (2005). The effects of regulatory focus on action desire and regret. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 13, 50– 52 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Werth, L. , Förster, J. (2005). How the business philosophy influences the performance and motivation of employees . Manuscript submitted for publication . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Werth, L. , Förster, J. im Druck The effects of regulatory focus on braking speed. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Werth, L. , Förster, J. (2006). How regulatory focus influences consumer behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 1– 19 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Werth, L. , Mayer, J. , Mussweiler, T. (2006). Der Einfluss des regulatorischen Fokus auf integrative Verhandlungen. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37, 13– 18 . First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Zhou, R. , Tuan Pham, M. (2004). Promotion and prevention across mental accounts: When financial products dictate consumers' investment goals. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 125– 135 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar