Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Communication

How Sexual Objectification Generates Dehumanization in Western and Eastern Cultures

A Comparison Between Belgium and Thailand

Published Online:March 08, 2018https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000209

Abstract

Abstract. Ever since Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) proposed objectification theory, research on self-objectification and – by extension – other-objectification has experienced a considerable expansion. However, most of the studies on sexual objectification have been conducted solely in Western populations. This study investigates whether the effect of target sexualization on social perception differs as a function of culture (Western vs. Eastern). Specifically, we asked a Western sample (Belgian, N = 62) and a Southeast Asian sample (Thai, N = 98) to rate sexualized versus nonsexualized targets. We found that sexual objectification results in dehumanization in both Western (Belgium) and Eastern (Thailand) cultures. Specifically, participants from both countries attributed less competence and less agency to sexualized than to nonsexualized targets, and they reported that they would administer more intense pain to sexualized than to nonsexualized targets. Thus, building on past research, this study suggests that the effect of target sexualization on dehumanization is a more general rather than a culture-specific phenomenon.

References

  • Archer, D., Iritani, B., Kimes, D. D., & Barrios, M. (1983). Face-ism: Five studies of sex differences in facial prominence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 725–735. doi 10.1037/ 0022-3514.45.4.725 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366–386. doi 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00024.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Awasthi, B. (2017). From attire to assault: Clothing, objectification, and de-humanization: A possible prelude to sexual violence? Frontiers in Psychology, 8, doi 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00338 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bakeman, R. (2005). Recommended effect size statistics for repeated measures designs. Behavior Research Methods, 37, 379–384. doi 10.3758/bf3192707 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S., & Klein, O. (2012). Integrating sexual objectification with object versus person recognition: The sexualized-body-inversion hypothesis. Psychological Science, 23, 469–471. doi 10.1177/0956797611434748 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., Delmée, A., & Klein, O. (2015). From sex objects to human beings: Masked sexual body parts and humanization as moderators to women’s objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 432–446. doi 10.1177/ 0361684315580125 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bernard, P., Loughnan, S., Marchal, C., Godart, A., & Klein, O. (2015). The exonerating effect of sexual objectification: Sexual objectification decreases rapist blame in a stranger rape context. Sex Roles, 72, 499–508. doi 10.1007/s11199-015-0482-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bernard, P., Rizzo, T., Hoonhorst, I., Deliens, G., Gervais, S. J., Eberlen, J., & Klein, O. (2017). The neural correlates of cognitive objectification: An ERP study on the body-inversion effect associated with sexualized bodies. Social and Psychological Personality Science. doi 10.1177/1948550617714582 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable weight: Feminism, western culture and the body. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brandt, M. J. (2011). Sexism and gender inequality across 57 societies. Psychological Science, 22, 1413–1418. doi 10.1177/ 0956797611420445 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475–482. doi 10.1177/0146167291175001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Brewer, M. B. (2003). Optimal distinctiveness, social identity, and the self. In M. R. LearyJ. P. TangneyEds., Handbook of self and identity (pp. 480–491). New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Calogero, R. M., Boroughs, M., & Thompson, J. K. (2007). The impact of Western beauty ideals on the lives of women: A sociocultural perspective. In V. SwamiA. FurnhamEds., Body beautiful: Evolutionary and sociocultural perspectives (pp. 259–298). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Chaipraditkul, N. (2013). Thailand: Beauty and globalized self-identity through cosmetic therapy and skin lightening. Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics, 13, 27–37. doi 10.3354/esep00134 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 540–551. doi 10.1162/jocn.2010.21497 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Civile, C., & Obhi, S. S. (2016). Power, objectification, and recognition of sexualised women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 199–212. doi 10.1177/0361684315604820 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Civile, C., Rajagobal, A., & Obhi, S. S. (2016). Power, ethnic origin, and sexual objectification. SAGE Open, 6, 215824401664615. doi 10.1177/2158244016646150 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., Kwan, V. S. Y., Glick, P., Demoulin, S., Leyens, J.-P., ... Ziegler, R. (2009). Stereotype content model across 2cultures: Toward universal similarities and some differences. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 1–33. doi 10.1348/ 014466608x314935 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Demoulin, S., Leyens, J.-P., Paladino, M.-P., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Rodriguez-Perez, A., & Dovidio, J. (2004). Dimensions of “uniquely” and “nonuniquely” human emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 18, 71–96. doi 10.1080/02699930244000444 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fieg, J. P., & Blair, J. G. (1980). There is a difference: 12 intercultural perspectives. Washington, DC: Meridian House International. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. In J. BryantD. ZillmannEds., LEA’s communication series. Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 17–41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gervais, S. J., Bernard, P., & Riemer, A. R. (2015). Who treats people as sex objects? Cultural orientation, social comparison, and sexual objectification perpetration. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 153–181. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., Förster, J., Maass, A., & Suitner, C. (2012). Seeing women as objects: The sexual body part recognition bias. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 743–753. doi 10.1002/ejsp.1890 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., ... López, W. L. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Global Web Index. (2014). Time spent on the Internet: Average number of hours spent using the Internet per day, split by PC use and mobile phone use, Q4, based on a survey of internet users aged 16–64. Retrieved from http://wearesocial.com/fr/etudes/digital-social-mobile-les-chiffres-2015 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gray, H. M., Gray, K., & Wegner, D. M. (2007). Dimensions of mind perception. Science, 315, 619. doi 10.1126/science.1134475 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gray, K., Knobe, J., Sheskin, M., Bloom, P., & Barrett, L. F. (2011). More than a body: Mind perception and the nature of objectification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 1207–1220. doi 10.1037/a0025883 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gray, K., & Wegner, D. M. (2009). Moral typecasting: Divergent perceptions of moral agents and moral patients. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 505–520. doi 10.1037/a0013748 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gurung, R. A. R., & Chrouser, C. J. (2007). Predicting objectification: Do provocative clothing and observer characteristics matter? Sex Roles, 57(1–2), 91–99. doi 10.1007/s11199-007-9219-z First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 252–264. doi 10.1207/ s15327957pspr1003_4 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Loughnan, S., Shi, J., & Suitner, C. (2008). Subhuman, inhuman, and superhuman: Contrasting humans with nonhumans in three cultures. Social Cognition, 26, 248–258. doi 10.1521/soco.2008.26.2.248 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2009). Objectifying Sarah Palin: Evidence that objectification causes women to be perceived as less competent and less fully human. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 598–601. doi 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Heflick, N. A., Goldenberg, J. L., Cooper, D. P., & Puvia, E. (2011). From women to objects: Appearance focus, target gender, and perceptions of warmth, morality, and competence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 572–581. doi 10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.020 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Holmes, H., Tangtongtavy, S., & Tomizawa, R. (1995). Working with the Thais: A guide to managing in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hoodfar, H. (1992). The veil in their minds and on our heads: The persistence of colonial images of muslim women. Resources for Feminist Research, 22, 5–18. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Inglehart, R., Basá�ez, M., Díez-Merdano, J., Halman, L., & Luijkx, R. (2004). Human beliefs and values: A cross-cultural sourcebook based on the 1999–2002 values surveys. Mexico City, Mexico: Siglo XXI. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2010a). Changing mass priorities: The link between modernization and democracy. Perspectives on Politics, 8, 551–567. doi 10.1017/s1537592710001258 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2010b). The WVS cultural map of the world. World Values Survey. Retrieved from http://pagines.uab.cat/seangolden/sites/pagines.uab.cat.seangolden/files/World%20Values%20Surveys%20maps%2020110606.pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Judd, C. M., Park, B., Ryan, C. S., Brauer, M., & Kraus, S. (1995). Stereotypes and ethnocentrism: Diverging interethnic perceptions of African American and White American youth. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 460–481. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.460 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kant, I. (1797/1963). Lectures on ethics. New York: Harper and Row. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klein, O., Allen, J., Bernard, P., & Gervais, S. J. (2014). Angry naked ladies: Can stereotyping and sexual objectification be used to transform social systems?. In D. SindicM. BarretoR. Costa-LopesEds., Power and identity (pp. 71–93). London, UK: Psychology Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Knodel, J., VanLandingham, M., Saengtienchai, C., & Pramualratana, A. (1996). Thai views of sexuality and sexual behavior. Health Transition Review, 6, 179–201. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Komin, S. (2000). Management in Thailand. In M. WarnerEd., Management in Asia Pacific (pp. 319–330). London, UK: Business Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Krawczyk, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2015). The effects of advertisements that sexually objectify women on state body dissatisfaction and judgments of women: The moderating roles of gender and internalization. Body Image, 15, 109–119. doi 10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.08.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • LaCroix, J. M., & Pratto, F. (2015). Instrumentality and the denial of personhood: The social psychology of objectifying others. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 183–211. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Loughnan, S., Fernandez-Campos, S., Vaes, J., Anjum, G., Aziz, M., Harada, C., ... Tsuchiya, K. (2015). Exploring the role of culture in sexual objectification: A seven nations study. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 125–152. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Loughnan, S., Haslam, N., Murnane, T., Vaes, J., Reynolds, C., & Suitner, C. (2010). Objectification leads to depersonalization: The denial of mind and moral concern to objectified others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 709–717. doi 10.1002/ejsp.755 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Loughnan, S., Pina, A., Vasquez, E. A., & Puvia, E. (2013). Sexual objectification increases rape victim blame and decreases perceived suffering. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 455–461. doi 10.1177/0361684313485718 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Cultural variation in the self-concept. The Self: Interdisciplinary Approaches, , 18–48. doi 10.1007/978-1-4684-8264-5_2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McCann, R. M., Honeycutt, J. M., & Keaton, S. A. (2010). Toward greater specificity in cultural value analyses: The interplay of intrapersonal communication affect and cultural values in Japan, Thailand, and the United States. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 39, 157–172. doi 10.1080/17475759.2010.534862 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Moradi, B., & Huang, Y.-P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 377–398. doi 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mulder, N. (1996). Inside Thai society: Interpretations of everyday life. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: The Pepin Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • NationMaster Database. (1997). Countries compared by media > Television receivers > Per capita. International Statistics at NationMaster.com. Source: UNESCO UIS Data/UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/Media/Television-receivers/Per-capita First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Nowatzki, J., & Morry, M. M. (2009). Women’s intentions regarding, and acceptance of, self-sexualizing behavior. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 95–107. doi 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01477.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nussbaum, M. C. (1995). Objectification. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 24, 249–291. doi 10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Olejnik, S., & Algina, J. (2003). Generalized eta and omega squared statistics: Measures of effect size for some common research designs. Psychological Methods, 8, 434–447. doi 10.1037/1082-989x.8.4.434 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pew Research Center on Religion and Public Life. (2010). Table: Religious diversity index scores by country. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/religious-diversity-index-scores-by-country/ First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Puvia, E., & Vaes, J. (2013). Being a body: Women’s appearance-related self-views and their dehumanization of sexually objectified female targets. Sex Roles, 68, 484–495. doi 10.1007/s11199-012-0255-y First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Puvia, E., & Vaes, J. (2015). Promoters versus victims of objectification: Why women dehumanize sexually objectified female targets. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 63–93. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Singelis, T. M., Triandis, H. C., Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Gelfand, M. J. (1995). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29, 240–275. doi 10.1177/106939719502900302 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Women who objectify other women: The vicious circle of objectification? Sex Roles, 52, 707–712. doi 10.1007/s11199-005-3737-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Swiatkowski, W., & Dompnier, B. (2017). Replicability crisis in social psychology: Looking at the past to find new pathways for the future. International Review of Social Psychology, 30, 111–124. doi 10.5334/irsp.66 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53. doi 10.1111/0022-4537.00200 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. WorchelW. AustinEds., Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Triandis, H. C. (1995). New directions in social psychology: Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 118–128. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vaes, J., Leyens, J.-P., Paola Paladino, M., & Pires Miranda, M. (2012). We are human, they are not: Driving forces behind outgroup dehumanisation and the humanisation of the ingroup. European Review of Social Psychology, 23, 64–106. doi 10.1080/ 10463283.2012.665250 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vaes, J., Paladino, P., & Puvia, E. (2011). Are sexualized women complete human beings? Why men and women dehumanize sexually objectified women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 774–785. doi 10.1002/ejsp.824 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2012). Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication, 62, 869–887. doi 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01667.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Voyé L., Dobbelaere K., & Abts, K. (2012). Autres temps, autres mœurs: Travail, famille, éthique, religion et politique, la vision des Belges [Other times, other customs: Work, family ethics, religion and politics, Belgians’ vision]. Brussels, Belgium: Racine Campus. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women. New York: William Morrow & Company. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar