Skip to main content
Original Article

Does Perfectionism Predict Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Life Satisfaction After Controlling for Neuroticism?

A Study of Canadian and Chinese Undergraduates

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000223

Abstract. Neuroticism overlaps substantially with several perfectionism dimensions, depression, anxiety, stress, and life satisfaction. Accordingly, research testing whether perfectionism dimensions explain unique variance in these outcomes beyond neuroticism is needed. Research on cultural differences in perfectionism is also scarce. And it is especially unclear whether the link between perfectionism and psychological distress differs across individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Our study addressed these important gaps in knowledge. A sample of undergraduates from a traditionally individualistic culture (Canada; N = 449) and a traditionally collectivistic culture (China; N = 585) completed measures of self-oriented perfectionism, personal standards, socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, depression, anxiety, stress, and satisfaction with life. To test the incremental validity of perfectionism dimensions beyond neuroticism, as well as to test potential moderating effects of culture, four hierarchical regression analyses with interactions were conducted. Results supported the explanatory power of concern over mistakes and doubts about actions, beyond neuroticism and culture, in the prediction of depression, anxiety, and stress. As the first study to explore the incremental validity of perfectionism dimensions across undergraduates from traditionally individualistic and collectivistic cultures, our research both extends and clarifies understanding of the predictive power of perfectionism in important ways.

References

  • Benet-Martinez, V. & John, O. P. (1998). Los Cinco Grandes across cultures and ethnic groups: Multitrait-multimethod analyses of the Big Five in Spanish and English. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 729–750. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.729 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Besser, A., Flett, G. L. & Hewitt, P. L. (2004). Perfectionism, cognition, and affect in response to performance failure vs. success. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 22, 297–324. doi: 10.1023/B:JORE.0000047313.35872.5c First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chang, E. C. (1998). Cultural differences, perfectionism, and suicidal risk in a college population: Does social problem solving still matter? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 237–254. doi: 10.1023/A:1018792709351 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chang, E. C. (2013). Perfectionism and loneliness as predictors of depressive and anxious symptoms in Asian and European Americans: Do self-construal schemas also matter? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 1179–1188. doi: 10.1007/s10608-013-9549-9 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chang, E. C., Chang, R. & Sanna, L. J. (2012). A test of the usefulness of perfectionism theory across cultures: Does perfectionism in the US and Japan predict depressive symptoms across time? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36, 1–14. doi: 10.1007/s10608-011-9376-9 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Costa, P. & McCrae, R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FF): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W. & Clara, I. P. (2002). The multidimensional structure of perfectionism in clinically distressed and college student samples. Psychological Assessment, 14, 365. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.14.3.365 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J. & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dunkley, D. M., Blankstein, K. R. & Berg, J. L. (2012). Perfectionism dimensions and the five‐factor model of personality. European Journal of Personality, 26, 233–244. doi: 10.1002/per.829 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dunkley, D. M., Blankstein, K. R., Halsall, J., Williams, M. & Winkworth, G. (2000). The relation between perfectionism and distress: Hassles, coping, and perceived social support as mediators and moderators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 437. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.47.4.437 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dunkley, D. M., Zuroff, D. C. & Blankstein, K. R. (2003). Self-critical perfectionism and daily affect: Dispositional and situational influences on stress and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 234. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.234 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Fairchild, A. & MacKinnon, D. (2009). A general model for testing mediation and moderation effects. Prevention Science, 10, 87–99. doi: 10.1007/s11121-008-0109-6 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Flett, G. L., Besser, A. & Hewitt, P. L. (2005). Perfectionism, ego defense styles, and depression: A comparison of self-reports versus informant ratings. Journal of Personality, 73, 1355–1396. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00352.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C. & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468. doi: 10.1007/BF01172967 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hambleton, R. & Lee, M. (2013). Methods of translating and adapting tests to increase cross-cultural validity. In D. H. SaklofskeC. R. ReynoldsV. L. SchweanEds., The Oxford handbook of child psychological assessment (pp. 172–181). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hewitt, P. L. & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hewitt, P. L., Habke, A. M., Lee-Baggley, D. L., Sherry, S. B. & Flett, G. L. (2008). The impact of perfectionistic self-presentation on the cognitive, affective, and physiological experience of a clinical interview. Psychiatry, 71, 93–122. doi: 10.1521/psyc.2008.71.2.93 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lahey, B. B. (2009). Public health significance of neuroticism. The American Psychologist, 64, 241–256. doi: 10.1037/a0015309 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lovibond, P. F. & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Nealis, L. J., Sherry, S. B., Sherry, D. L., Stewart, S. H. & Macneil, M. A. (2015). Toward a better understanding of narcissistic perfectionism: Evidence of factorial validity, incremental validity, and mediating mechanisms. Journal of Research in Personality, 57, 11–25. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2015.02.006 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • O’Brien, R. M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity, 41, 673–690. doi: 10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Osman, A., Wong, J. L., Bagge, C. L., Freedenthal, S., Gutierrez, P. M. & Lozano, G. (2012). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS‐21): Further examination of dimensions, scale reliability, and correlates. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68, 1322–1338. doi: 10.1002/jclp.21908 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M. & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3–72. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Paunonen, S. & Hong, R. (2015). On the properties of personality traits. In M. MikulincerP. R. ShaverEds., APA handbook of personality and social psychology: Vol. 4. Personality processes and individual differences (pp. 233–259). Washington, DC: APA. doi: 10.1037/14343-011 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Pavot, W. & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 137–152. doi: 10.1080/17439760701756946 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Perera, M. J. & Chang, E. C. (2015). Ethnic variations between European Americans in interpersonal sources of socially prescribed perfectionism: It’s not just about parents!. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 6, 31–37. doi: 10.1037/a0036175 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Rice, K., Ashby, J. & Slaney, R. (2007). Perfectionism and the five-factor model of personality. Assessment, 14, 385–398. doi: 10.1177/1073191107303217 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H. & Yan, G. (2015). Perfectionism, trait emotional intelligence, and psychological outcomes. Personality and Individual Differences, 85, 155–158. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.010 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Yan, G. & Sherry, S. B. (2015). Perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns interact to predict negative emotionality: Support for the tripartite model of perfectionism in Canadian and Chinese university students. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 141–147. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.006 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Yan, G. & Sherry, S. B. (2016). Cultural similarities in perfectionism: Perfectionistic strivings and concerns generalize across Chinese and Canadian groups. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 49, 63–76. doi: 10.1177/0748175615596785 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, M. M., Sherry, S. B., Rnic, K., Saklofske, D. H., Enns, M. & Gralnick, T. (2016). Are perfectionism dimensions vulnerability factors for depressive symptoms after controlling for neuroticism? A meta-analysis of 10 longitudinal studies. European Journal of Personality, 30, 201–212. doi: 10.1002/per.2053 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stoeber, J., Kobori, O. & Tanno, Y. (2013). Perfectionism and self-conscious emotions in British and Japanese students: Predicting pride and embarrassment after success and failure. European Journal of Personality, 27, 59–70. doi: 10.1002/per.1858 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stoeber, J. & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 295–319. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tabachnick, B. & Fidell, L. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MD: Pearson. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar