Writing Before Speaking Modifies Speech Production
Evidence From a Non-Color-Word Stroop Task
Abstract
Abstract. We investigated whether orthographic information influences speech production. We used a non-color-word version of the Stroop task in which participants had to ignore the presented words but name their ink color instead. In two experiments, we manipulated the phonological and orthographic relationships between the words and their ink color and the tasks’ context by preactivating or not orthographic information. The relation between the first letter of the prime word and the first phoneme of the color name was phonological or orthographic and phonological or unrelated. In Experiment 1, only phonological information carried out by the prime word affected spoken naming; orthographic information did not help. In Experiment 2, speech production was influenced by orthographic information only after an initial writing task. This confirms that orthographic information can support speaking and that speech is sensitive to properties of the task’s context, suggesting that orthographic information is coactivated online with phonological information.
References
(2007). The role of orthography in speech production revisited. Cognition, 102, 464–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.02.002
(2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68, 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
(2009). The contribution of orthography to spoken word production: Evidence from Mandarin Chinese. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 555–560. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.16.3.555
(2012). A written word is worth a thousand spoken words: The influence of spelling on spoken-word production. Journal of Memory and Language, 67, 449–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.08.001
(2002). Why do non-color words interfere with color naming? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 1019–1038. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.28.5.1019
(2009). An anatomical signature for literacy. Nature, 461, 983–986. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08461
(1998). The illiterate brain: Learning to read and write during childhood influences the functional organization of the adult brain. Brain, 121, 1053–1063. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/121.6.1053
(2007). Reading spoken words: Orthographic effects in auditory priming. Cognition, 102, 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.01.001
(1999). A position-sensitive Stroop effect: Further evidence for a left-to-right component in print-to-speech conversion. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 456–463. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03210835
(2003). Effects of orthography on speech production in a form-preparation paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-596X(03)00008-1
(2009). Assessing the role of orthography in speech perception and production: Evidence from picture-word interference tasks. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 21, 581–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440801896007
(2011). Long-term repetition priming in spoken and written word production: Evidence for a contribution of phonology to handwriting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 813–826. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023260
(2012). Learning to read improves the structure of the arcuate fasciculus. Cerebral Cortex, 24, 989–995. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs383
(2013). Inside the letterbox: How literacy transforms the human brain. Cerebrum, 7, 1–16. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3704307/
(2015). Illiterate to literate: Behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16, 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3924
(2010). How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science, 330, 1359–1364. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1194140
(1998). Literally changing the brain. Brain, 121, 1011–1012. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/121.6.1011
(1961). Theory of probability (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
(1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 1–38. Retrieved from http://www.socsci.ru.nl/ardiroel/BBS1999.pdf
(2015). To transform or not to transform: Using generalized linear mixed models to analyse reaction time data. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1171. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01171
(1997). Auditory and visual rhyme judgements reveal differences and similarities between normal and disabled adolescent readers. Dyslexia, 3, 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0909(199706)3:2<63::AID-DYS49>3.0.CO;2-Q
(1990). The time course of phonological encoding in language production: The encoding of successive syllables. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 524–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(90)90050-A
(2011). Orthographic contamination of Broca’s area. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00378
(2011). Learning to read changes in children’s phonological skills: Evidence from a latent variable longitudinal study of reading and nonword repetition. Developmental Science, 14, 649–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01008.x
(2004). Lexique 2: A new French lexical database. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 516–524. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195598
(2011). Naming in noise: The contribution of orthographic knowledge to speech repetition. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00361
(2014). Unattentive speech processing is influenced by orthographic knowledge: Evidence from mismatch negativity. Brain and Language, 137, 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.08.005
(2007). Manulex-infra: Distributional characteristics of grapheme-phoneme mappings, infra-lexical and lexical units in child-directed written material. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 593–603. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193029
(2009). Orthographic effects in spoken language: On-line activation or phonological restructuring? Brain Research, 1275, 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.04.018
(2008). La plus belle histoire du language
[The most beautiful story of language] . Paris, France: Seuil.(1999). Words in the brain’s language. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 22, 253–279. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X9900182X
(1985). Orthographic and phonetic coding in developmental dyslexia. British Journal of Psychology, 76, 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1985.tb01956.x
(1997). Illiteracy: A cause for biased cognitive development. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 444–450. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9322403
(1992). A spreading-activation theory of lemma retrieval in speaking. Cognition, 42, 107–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(92)90041-F
(1997). The WEAVER model of word-form encoding in speech production. Cognition, 64, 249–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(97)00027-9
(2003). Goal-referenced selection of verbal action: Modelling attentional control in the Stroop task. Psychological Review, 110, 88–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.88
(2006). The influence of spelling on phonological encoding in word reading, object naming, and word generation. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13, 33–37. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193809
(2016). Reading skill and exposure to orthography influence speech production. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37, 411–434. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716415000053
(1979). Orthographic effects on rhyme monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 546–554. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0278-7393.5.6.546
(2004). The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 19, 57–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960344000134
(1972). Stimulus encoding and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 94, 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032786
(1974). Association, directionality, and stimulus encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 102, 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035703
(1991). The orthographic code: Developmental trends in reading-disabled and normally-achieving children. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 178–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648085
(1998). Orthography shapes the perception of speech: The consistency effect in auditory word recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5, 683–689. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208845
(2008). Feedback consistency effects in visual and auditory word recognition: Where do we stand after more than a decade? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 643–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.34.3.643
