Skip to main content
Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1024//0170-1789.21.1.5

Zusammenfassung: Nach zum Teil krisenhaften Entwicklungen hat die Differentielle Psychologie heute ein ausgesprochen positives Selbstverständnis wiedererlangt und eine Vielzahl neuer substantieller Forschungserträge aufzuweisen. Im neuesten Handbook of Personality Psychology wird ihre «Wiedergeburt gefeiert». Die gegenwärtige Differentielle Psychologie erscheint aber auch wegen unzureichend gelöster Grundlagenprobleme in besonderem Maße gefährdet, Rückfälle zu erleiden und unfruchtbare Stagnation zu spät zu erkennen. Im vorliegenden Beitrag sollen zunächst die wichtigsten Krisen und Grundlagendebatten in Erinnerung gerufen werden. Dann wird gezeigt, daß wesentliche Probleme aus diesen Debatten nicht ausreichend gelöst erscheinen und die kontinuierliche Entwicklung der Differentiellen Psychologie erschweren. Für einige dieser Probleme werden Lösungsvorschläge und weiterführende Überlegungen zur Diskussion gestellt. Es wird ansatzweise gezeigt, daß das beachtliche Potential der gegenwärtigen Differentiellen Psychologie auf diese Weise wesentlich wirkungsvoller genutzt werden könnte.


Abstract: Having passed critical stages of development personality psychology has recovered remarkable self-confidence and exhibits a multiplicity of substantial research findings. The recent Handbook of Personality Psychology celebrates the «rebirth» of personality psychology. But current personality psychology also seems to be running the risk of failing to notice reverse and stagnation in time. In this study the most significant crises and debates on fundamentals are recalled. It is shown, that major problems analyzed in these debates do not seem to be sufficiently solved and limit the developmental potential of personality psychology. Possible solutions for some of these problems and some developmental perspectives will be offered. It is shown, that the remarkable potential of to day's personality psychology could be more effectively tapped on this basis.

Literatur

  • Allport, G.W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation . New York: Holt . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Amelang, M. , Bartussek, D. (1997). Differentielle Psychologie und Persönlichkeitsforschung (4. überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Amthauer, R. , Brocke, B. , Liepmann, D. , Beauducel, A. (1999). Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 2000 (I-S-T 2000) . Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Asendorpf, J. (1990). Die differentielle Sichtweise in der Psychologie . Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bartussek, D. (1973). Zur Interpretation der Kernmatrix in der dreimodalen Faktorenanalyse von R.L. Tucker. Psychologische Beiträge, 15, 169– 184 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Ben-Porath, Y.S. , Waller, N.G. (1992). «Normal» personality inventories in clinical assessment: General reqirements and the potential for using the NEO Personality inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4, 14– 19 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Block, J. (1995). A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 187– 215 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Borkenau, P. (1995). Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Fünf-Faktoren-Modells der Persönlichkeit. In K. Pawlik (Hrsg.), Bericht über den 39. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Hamburg 1994 (S. 769-770). Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brandstätter, H. , Filipp, G. , Drescher, P. (1992). Zur Validität der 16 Persönlichkeits-Adjektivsskalen (16 PA). Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 13, 53– 67 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. (1978). Technologische Prognosen . Freiburg: Alber . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. (1979). Aspekte einer Methodologie der angewandten Sozial- und Verhaltenswissenschaften. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 10, 2– 29 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. (1980). Wissenschaftstheoretische Grundlagenprobleme der Angewandten Psychologie. Das Abgrenzungs-, Konstitutenten- und Fundierbarkeitsproblem. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 11, 207– 224 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. , Bartussek, D. (1993). Biopsychologische Persönlichkeitstheorien: Entwicklungsperspektiven und Ergebnisse. In L. Montada (Hrsg.), Bericht über den 38. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Trier 1992 (Bd. 2, S. 850-853). Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. , Battmann, W. (1985). Die Aktivierungstheorie der Persönlichkeit. Eine systematische Darstellung und partielle Rekonstruktion. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Persönlichkeitspsychologie, 6, 189– 213 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. , Tasche, K. , Beauducel, A. (1996). Biopsychological foundations of extraversion: Differential effort reactivity and the differential P300 effect. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 727– 738 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. , Tasche, K. , Beauducel, A. (1997). Biopsychological foundations of extraversion: Differential effort reactivity and state control. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 447– 458 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brocke, B. (1999). Der Trait-Ansatz in der Differentiellen Psychologie: Grundlagen, Probleme, Entwicklungsperspektiven . Dresden: TU-Dresden, Institut für Klinische, Diagnostische und Differentielle Psychologie, Forschungsbericht 6 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brody, N. , Ehrlichman, H. (1998). Personality psychology: The science of individuality . London: Prentice-Hall . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brunner, H.G. , Nelen, M. , Breakfield, X.O. , Ropers, H.H. , van Oost, B.A. (1993). Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science, 262, 578– 580 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Burish, M. (1984). Approaches to personality inventory construction. American Psychologist, 39, 214– 227 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Carnap, R. (1936). Testability and meaning. Philosophy of Science, 3, 419– 471 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Carnap, R. (1960). Theoretische Begriffe der Wissenschaft: Eine logische und methodologische Untersuchung. Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung, 14, 209– 233 571– 598 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cattell, R.B. , Tsujioka, B. (1994). The importance of factor trueness and validity, versus homogeneity and orthogonality in test scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 24, 3– 30 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Church, I. , Burke, P. (1994). Exploratory and confirmatory tests of the big five and Tellegen's three- and four- dimensional models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 93– 114 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Cronbach, L.J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 12, 671– 684 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Cronbach, L.J. , Gleser, G.C. , Nanda, H. , Rajaratnam, N. (1972). The dependability of behavioral measurements: Theory of generalizability for scores and profiles . New York: Wiley . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cronbach, L.J. , Meehl, P. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281– 302 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Deinzer, R. , Steyer, R. , Eid, M. , Notz, P. , Schwenkmezger, P. , Ostendorf, F. , Neubauer, A. (1995). Situational effects in trait assessment: The FPI, NEOFFI, and EPI questionnaires. European Journal of Personality, 9, 1– 23 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ebstein, R.P. , Novick, O. , Umansky, R. , Priel, B. , Osher, Y. , Blaine, D. , Bennett, E.R. , Nemanov, L. , Katz, M. , Belmaker, R.H. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics, 12, 78– 80 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ekehammar, B. (1974). Interactionism in personality from a historical perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 1026– 1048 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Endler, N.S. (1966). Estimating variance components for mean squares from random and mixed effects analysis of variance models. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 22, 559– 570 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Endler, N.S. (1975). Aperson-situation interaction model of anxiety. In C.D. Spielberger & I.C. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 1, pp. 145-164). Washington, DC: Hemisphere . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Endler, N.S. , Edwards, J.M. (1986). Imteractionism in personality in the 20th century. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 379– 384 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Endler, N.S. , Edwards, J.M. (1986). Interactionism in personality in the 20th century. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 379– 384 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Epstein, S. (1979). The stability of behavior: I. On predicting most of the people much of the time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1097– 1126 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Everett, J.E. (1983). Factor comparability as a means of determining the number of factors and their rotation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 18, 197– 218 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Everett, J.E. , Entrekin, L.V. (1980). Factor comparability and the advantages of multiple group factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 15, 165– 180 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Eysenck, H.J. (1947). Dimensions of personality . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Eysenck, H.J. (1991). Dimensions of personality: 16, 5 or 3? Criteria for a taxonomy paradigm. Personality and Individual Differences, 8, 773– 790 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Eysenck, H.J. (1992). Four ways five factors are not basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 667– 673 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Eysenck, H.J. (1997). Personality and experimental psychology: The unification of psychology and the possibility of a paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1224– 1237 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Eysenck, H.J. , Eysenck, M.W. (1985). Personality and individual differences: A natural science approach . New York: Plenum . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Feyerabend, P. (1977). Changing patterns of reconstruction. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 28, 351– 382 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Furnham, A. , Jaspars, J. (1983). The evidence for interactionism in psychology. A critical analysis of the situation-response inventories. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 627– 644 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Goldberg, L.R. (1992). The structure of phenotypic personality traits (or the magical number five, plus minus zero . Presentation at the Sixth European Conference on Personality in Groningen, Netherlands . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Groeben, N. , Westmeyer, H. (1975). Kriterien psychologischer Forschung . München: Juventa . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hempel, C.G. (1965). Aspects of scientific explanation. And other essays in the philosophy of science . New York: The Free Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hempel, C.G. (1970). On the «standard conception» of scientific theories. In M. Radner & S. Winokur (Eds.), Analysis of theories and methods of physics and psychology (Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science (Vol. IV, pp. 142-163). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hempel, C.G. (1974). Formulation and formalization of scientific theories: A summary-abstract. In F. Suppe (Ed.), The structure of scientific theories (pp. 244-254). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hempel, C.G. (1977). Nachwort 1976: Neuere Ideen zu den Problemen der statistischen Erklärung. In C.G. Hempel (Hrsg.), Aspekte wissenschaftlicher Erklärung (ergänztes und überarbeitetes Schlußkapitel von Hempel 1965). Berlin: de Gruyter . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Henss, R. (1995). From Aal to Zyniker. Personality descriptive type nouns in the German language. European Journal of Personality, 9, 135– 145 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Herrmann, T. (1969). Lehrbuch der empirischen Persönlichkeitsforschung . Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Herrmann, T. (1973). Persönlichkeitsmerkmale. Bestimmung und Verwendung in der psychologischen Wissenschaft . Stuttgart: Kohlhammer . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hogan, R. (1997). Preface. In R. Hogan, J.A. Johnson & S.R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. XXIII-XXIV). New York: Academic Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hogan, R. , Johnson, J.A. , Briggs, S.R. (1997). Handbook of personality . New York: Academic Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Holz-Ebeling, F. (1995). Faktorenanalysen und was dann? Zur Frage der Validität von Dimensionsinterpretationen. Psychologische Rundschau, 46, 18– 35 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Horn, J. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179– 185 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hough, I. (1992). The «Big Five» personality variables - Construct confusion: description and versus prediction. Human Performance, 5, 139– 155 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Huber, H.P. (1973). Psychometrische Einzelfalldiagnostik . Weinheim: Beltz . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Jäger, A.O. , Süß, H.M. , Beauducel, A. (1997). Berliner Intelligenzstruktur-Test. Form 4 . Göttingen: Hogrefe . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Johnson, J.A. (1997). Units of analysis for the description and explanation of personality. In R. Hogan, J.A. Johnson & S.R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality (pp. 73-93). New York: Academic Press . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K.J. (1984). Kontentvalidität. Diagnostica, 30, 1– 23 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Krolak-Schwerdt, S. (1991). Modelle der dreimodalen Faktorenanalyse: Formale Eigenschaften, theoretische Zusammenhänge und ihre Implikationen für das Konzept individueller Differenzen. Psychologische Beiträge, 33, 314– 346 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Laux, L. (1998). Wozu brauchen wir Persönlichkeitspsychologie? Podiumsdiskussion auf der 4. Arbeitstagung der Fachgruppe Differentielle Psychologie, Persönlichkeitspsychologie und Psychologische Diagnostik in der DGPs in Bamberg 1997. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 19, 2– 2 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Lesch, K.P. , Bengel, D. , Heils, A. , Sabol, S.Z. , Greenberg, B.D. , Petri, S. , Benjamin, J. , Müller, C.R. , Hamer, D.H. , Murphy, D.L. (1996). Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science, 274, 1527– 1531 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McCorquodale, K. , Meehl, P.E. (1948). On a distinction between hypothetical constructs and interverning variables. Psychological Review, 55, 95– 107 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McCrae, R.R. , Costa, P.T. (1986). Clinical assessment can benefit from recent advances in personality psychology. American Psychologist, 41, 1001– 1003 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McCrae, R.R. , Costa, P.T. (1995). Trait explanations in personality psychology. European Journal of Personality, 9, 231– 252 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McCrae, R.R. , John, O.P. (1992). An introduction to the Five Factor Model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175– 215 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McDonald, R.P. (1985). Factor analysis and related methods . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mershon, B. , Gorsuch, R.L. (1988). Number of factors in the personality sphere: Does increase in factors increase predictability of real-life criteria?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 675– 680 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mischel, W. (1984). Convergences and challenges in the search for consistency. American Psychologist, 39, 351– 364 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Murray, H.A. (1938). Explorations in personality . New York: Oxford . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Olweus, D. (1977). A critical analysis of the «modern» interactionist position. In D. Magnusson & N.S. Endler (Eds.), Personality at the crossroads: Current issues in interactional psychology (pp. 221-233). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Ozer, D.J. (1986). Consistency in personality: A methodological framework . New York: Springer . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Plomin, R. (1995). Molecular genetics and psychology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 114– 117 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Popper, K.R. (1960). (1969). Das Elend des Historizismus (2. Aufl.). Tübingen: Mohr. (Original erschienen 1960: The poverty of historicism) . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rösler, F. (1975). Die Abhängigkeit des Elektroenzephalogramms von den Persönlichkeitsdimensionen E und N sensu Eysenck und unterschiedlich aktivierenden Situationen. Zeitschrift für experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie, 22, 630– 667 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rösler, F. (1983). Physiologisch orientierte Forschungsstrategien in der Differentiellen und Diagnostischen Psychologie: I. Zur Konzeption des psychophysiologischen Untersuchungsansatzes. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 4, 283– 299 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schneewind, K.A. (1982). Persönlichkeitstheorien I. Alltagspsychologie und mechanistische Ansätze . Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schurz, G. (1988). Erklären und Verstehen in der Wissenschaft . München: Oldenbourg . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Shoda, Y. , Mischel, W. , Wright, J.C. (1994). Intraindividual stability in the organization and patterning of behavior: Incorporating psychological situations into the idiographic analysis of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 674– 687 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stegmüller, W. (1969). Wissenschaftliche Erklärung und Begründung (Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschaftstheorie und Analytischen Philosophie, Band I) . Berlin: Springer . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Stegmüller, W. (1970). Theorie und Erfahrung (Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschaftstheorie und Analytischen Philosophie, Band II) . Berlin: Springer . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Stelmack, R.M. (1997). The psychophysics and psychophysiology of extraversion and arousal. In H. Nyborg (Ed.), The scientific study of human nature: Tribute to Hans J. Eysenck at 80 (pp. 388-403). London: Elsevier . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Stelmack, R.M. , Geen, R.G. (1992). The psychophysiology of extraversion. In A. Gale & M.W. Eysenck (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences: Biological perspectives (pp. 227-254). Chichester: Wiley . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Stern, W. (1911). Die differentielle Psychologie in ihren methodischen Grundlagen . Leipzig: Barth . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Steyer, R. , Schmitt, M.J. (1990). The effects of aggregation across and within occasions on consistency, specificity and reliability. Methodika, 4, 58– 94 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Strobel, A. , Wehr, A. , Michel, A. , Brocke, B. (1999). Association between the dopamine D4 (DRD4) exon III polymorphism and measures of novelty seeking in a german population. Molecular Psychiatry, 378– 384 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Suppe, F. (1974). The search for philosophic understanding of scientific theories. In F. Suppe (Ed.), The structure of scientific theories (pp. 1-241). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tellegen, A. , Waller, N.G. (in press) Exploring personality through test construction: Development of the multidimensional personality questionnaire. In S.R. Briggs & J.M. Cheek (Eds.), Personality measures: Development and evaluation (Vol. 1). Greenwich, CN: JAI Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Thurstone, L.L. (1923). The stimulus-response fallacy in psychology. Psychological Review, 30, 354– 369 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Van Heck, G.L. , Perugini, M. , Caprara, G.V. , Fröger, J. (1994). The Big Five as tendencies in situations. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 715– 731 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Vernon, P.E. (1961). The structure of human abilities (2. Aufl.). London: Methuen . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Waller, N.G. , Ben-Porath, Y.S. (1987). Is it time for clinical psychology to embrace the five-factor model of personality?. American Psychologist, 42, 887– 889 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Westermann, R. (1987). Wissenschaftstheoretische Grundlagen der experimentellen Psychologie. In G. Lüer (Hrsg.), Allgemeine Experimentelle Psychologie (S. 5-42). Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wiggins, J.S. (1997). In defense of traits. In R. Hogan, J.A. Johnson & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality (pp. 95-115). New York: Academic Press. (zuerst als Vortrag in Berkeley 1973) . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wimsatt, W.C. (1976). Reductive explanation: a functional account. In R.S. Cohen, C.A. Hooker, A.C. Michalos & J.W. van Evra (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1974 biennal meeting, Philosophy of Science Association. Dordrecht: Reidel (BSPS, vol. XXXII) . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wittmann, W.W. (1988). Multivariate reliability theory. Principles of symmetry and successful validation strategies. In J.R. Nesselroad & R.B. Cattell (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (pp. 505-560). New York: Plenum Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wittmann, W.W. , Schmidt, J. (1983). Die Vorhersagbarkeit des Verhaltens aus Traitinventaren. Theoretische Grundlagen und empirische Ergebnisse mit dem Freiburger Persönlichkeitsinventar (FPI) (Forschungsbericht Nr. 10 des Psychologischen Instituts Freiburg i. Br.). Freiburg i. Br.: Psychologisches Institut der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wright, J.C. , Mischel, W. (1987). A conditional approach to dispositional constructs: The local predictability of social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1159– 1177 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wright, J.C. , Mischel, W. (1988). Conditional hedges and the intuitive psychology of traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 454– 469 . First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Zimbardo, P.G. , Ruch, F.L. (1976). (1978). Lehrbuch der Psychologie (3. Aufl.). Berlin: Springer. (Original erschienen 1976: Psychology and life) . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Zuckerman, M. (1991). Psychobiology of personality . New York: Cambridge University Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar