Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Beiträge

“Sadder but Fitter”

Published Online:March 05, 2015https://doi.org/10.1024/0044-3514.35.3.157

Abstract

Zusammenfassung: Das hier vorgestellte Modell begreift Depression nach Fehl- und Totgeburten als einen evolutionären Schutzmechanismus vor erneuten fötalen Verlusten. Das Modell postuliert, dass depressive Symptome zu einer Verzögerung des nächsten Reproduktionsversuches führen und damit eine Anpassung an Ursachen fötaler Verluste (Epidemien, Hungersnöte, Infektionen, Umweltgifte) ermöglicht. Im Detail postulieren wir, dass die Symptome dieser Depression drei adaptive Funktionen erfüllen: Verzögerung der nächsten Schwangerschaft, Ressourcenschonung und Ursachensuche. Diese Reaktionen sollen die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer weiteren Fehlgeburt reduzieren. Zur Überprüfung des Modells wird bisher nicht in Zusammenhang gebrachte Literatur über (1) die Bedeutung fötaler Verluste als Depressionsauslöser, (2) den Einfluss von Depression auf eine Verzögerung der Reproduktion und (3) die Auswirkung dieser Verzögerung auf nachfolgende Reproduktionsversuche dargestellt und diskutiert.


Abstract: We presented a model conceptualizing depression following miscarriage or stillbirth as an evolutionary protective mechanism to avoid further fetal loss. The model postulates that these depressive symptoms delay the next attempt to reproduce and that this is an adaptation to causes of fetal loss (epidemics, famines, infections, environmental toxins). Further, we more specifically postulate that the symptoms of this depression have three adaptive functions: delay of subsequent pregnancies, protection of resources and search for causes. These reactions are hypothesized to reduce the probability of further fetal losses. For the examination of the model, the following literature, not previously connected, are discussed: (1) fetal loss as a trigger of depression, (2) the influence of depression on pregnancy delays and (3) the effect of these delays on following reproduction attempts.

References

  • Abed, R.T. , de Pauw, K.W. (1998). An evolutionary hypothesis for obsessive compulsive disorder: a psychological immune system?. Behavioural Neurology, 11, 245– 250 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Angst, J. (1998). Sexual problems in healthy and depressed persons. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13 (suppl 6), 1– 4 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Arck, P.C. , Rose, M. , Hertwig, K. , Hagen, E. , Hildebrandt, M. , Klapp, B.F. (2001). Stress and immune mediators in miscarriage. Human Reproduction, 16, 1505– 1511 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Baldwin, D.S. (2001). Depression and sexual dysfunction. British medical bulletin, 57, 81– 99 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). The maladapted mind . Hove, UK: Psychology Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Beck, A.T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 5– 37 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bergdahl, J. , Bergdahl, M. (2002). Perceived stress in adults: Prevalence and association of depression, anxiety and medication in a Swedish population. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, , 235– 241 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Berkow, R. (1992). Sexually transmitted diseases: Syphilis. In R. Berkow (Ed.), The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy (16th ed. pp. 2646-2647). Rahway, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Beutel, M. , Will, H. , Voelkl, K. , von Rad, M. , Weiner, H. (1995). Assessment of grief exemplified pregnancy loss: Development and initial results on the validity of the Munich Grief Scale. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, Medizinische Psychologie, 45, 295– 302 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Beutel, M. , Willner, H. , Deckard, R. , Von Rad, M. (1996). Similarities and differences in couples' grief reactions following a miscarriage: Results from a longitudinal study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 40, 245– 253 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Billewicz, W.Z. , McGregor, I.A. (1981). The demography of two West African (Gambian) villages, 1951-1975. Journal of Biosocial Science, 13, 219– 240 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Binser, M.J. (2003). Evolutionäre Funktionalität von depressiven Symptomen nach Fehl- und Totgeburten . Unpublished diploma thesis, Department Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bulletti, C. , Flamigni, C. , Giacomucci, E. (1996). Reproductive failure due to spontaneous abortion and recurrent miscarriage. Human Reproduction Update, 2, 118– 136 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Buss, D.M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 1– 30 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Carroli, G. , Rooney, C. , Villar, J. (2001). How effective is antenatal care in preventing maternal mortality and serious morbidity? An overview of the evidence. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 15 (Suppl 1), 1– 42 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Chalmers, B. (1996). Cultural variations in South African women's experiences of miscarriage: Implications for clinical care. In R. Cecil (Ed.), The anthropology of pregnancy loss (pp. 153-177). Oxford: Berg . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Connor, J.M. , Whittle, M.J. (1989). Genetic and prepregnancy counselling. In M.J. Whittle & J.M. Conor (Eds.), Prenatal diagnosis in obstetric practice (pp. 1- 6). Cambridge, UK: The University Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cosmides, L. , Tooby, J. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In M. Lewis & J.M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 91- 115). New York: Guilford . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Coyne, J.C. , Thompson, R. , Palmer, S.C. (2002). Marital quality, coping with conflict, marital complaints, and affection in couples with a depressed wife. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 26– 37 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cuisinier, M. , Janssen, H. , de-Graauw, C. , Bakker, S. , Hoogduin, C. (1996). Pregnancy following miscarriage: Course of grief and some determining factors. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 17, 168– 174 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Facchinetti, F. , Demyttenaere, K. , Fioroni, L. , Neri, I. , Genazzani, A.R. (1992). Psychosomatic disorders related to gynecology. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 58, 137– 154 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Försterling, F. (2001). Attribution: An introduction to theories, research and applications . Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Forrest, G.C. , Jansen, W.H. (1998). Postabortion care services: An update from PRIME. Resources for Women's Health, 1(2), 1– 10 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Fram, K.M. (2002). Histological analysis of the products of conception following first trimester abortion at Jordan University Hospital. European Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 105, 147– 149 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Franche, R.L. , Mikail, S.F. (1999). The impact of perinatal loss on adjustment to subsequent pregnancy. Social Science and Medicine, 48, 1613– 1623 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Goyaux, N. , Alihonou, E. , Diadhiou, F. , Leke, R. , Thonneau, P.F. (2001). Complications of induced abortion and miscarriage in three African countries: A hospital-based study among WHO collaborating centers. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 80, 568– 573 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hagen, E.H. (2002). Depression as bargaining: The case postpartum. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 323– 336 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hamamy, H. , Alwan, A. (1997). Genetic disorders and congenital abnormalities: Strategies for reducing the burden in the region. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 3, 123– 132 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hammen, C. (2003). Interpersonal stress and depression in women. Journal of Affective Disorders, 74, 49– 57 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Haselton, M.G. , Buss, D.M. (2000). Error management theory: A new perspective on biases in cross-sex mind reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 81– 91 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Haukkala, A. , Uutela, A. , Salomaa, V. (2001). Depressive symptoms, cynical hostility, and weight change: A 3-year follow-up among middle-aged men and women. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8, 116– 133 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hoyert, D.L. (1996). Medical and life-style risk factors affecting fetal mortality, 1989-90. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics/National Center for Health Statistics, 20, 1– 32 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klerman, L.V. , Phelan, S.T. , Poole, V.L. , Goldenberg, R.L. (1995). Family planning: An essential component of prenatal care. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association, 50, 147– 151 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klier, C.M. , Geller, P.A. , Ritsher, J.B. (2002). Affective disorders in the aftermath of miscarriage: A comprehensive review. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 5, 129– 149 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Leonard, B.E. (2001). Stress, norepinephrine and depression. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 26 Suppl, 11– 16 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Leslie, P.W. , Campbell, K.L. , Little, M.A. (1993). Pregnancy loss in Nomadic and settled women in Turkana, Kenya: A prospective study. Human Biology, 65, 237– 254 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mace, R. (1996). When to have another baby: A dynamic model of reproductive decision-making and evidence from Gabbra pastoralists. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 263– 274 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mace, R. (2000). Evolutionary ecology of human life history. Animal Behaviour, 59, 1– 10 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McGuire, M. , Troisi, A. , Raleigh, M. (1997). Depression in evolutionary context. In S. Baron-Cohen (Ed.), The maladapted mind. Classic readings in evolutionary psychopathology (pp. 255-278). Hove, UK: Psychology Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Moore, S.E. , Cole, T.J. , Poskitt, E.M. , Sonko, B.J. , Whitehead, R.G. , McGregor, I.A. , Prentice, A.M. (1997). Season of birth predicts mortality in rural Gambia. Nature, 388, 434– . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Neugebauer, R. , Kline, J. , O'Connor, P. , Shrout, P. , Johnson, J. , Skodol, A. , Wicks, J. , Susser, M. (1992a). Depressive symptoms in women in the six months after miscarriage. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 166, 104– 109 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Neugebauer, R. , Kline, J. , O'Connor, P. , Shrout, P. , Johnson, J. , Skodol, A. , Wicks, J. , Susser, M. (1992b). Determinants of depressive symptoms in the early weeks after miscarriage. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1332– 1339 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Neugebauer, R. , Kline, J. , Shrout, P. , Skodol, A. , O'Connor, P. , Geller, P.A. , Stein, Z. , Susser, M. (1997). Major depressive disorder in the 6 months after miscarriage. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 383– 388 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Oehman, A. , Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108, 483– 522 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pearson, H. (2002). Reproductive immunology: Immunity's pregnant pause. Nature, 420, 265– 266 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Potvin, L. , Lasker, J. , Toedter, L. (1989). Measuring grief: A short version of the Perinatal Grief Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 11, 29– 45 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Price, J. , Solman, L. , Gardener, R.J. , Gilbert, P. , Rohde, P. (1997). The social competition hypothesis of depression. In S. Baron-Cohen (Ed.), The maladapted mind. Classic readings in evolutionary psychopathology (pp. 241-254). Hove, UK: Psychology Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Profet, M. (1992). Pregnancy sickness as adaptation: A deterrent to maternal ingestion of teratogens. In J.H. Barkow & L. Cosmides (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 327-365). London: Oxford University Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Reindollar, R.H. (2000). Contemporary issues for spontaneous abortion. Does recurrent abortion exist?. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America, 27, 541– 554 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rief, W. , Hiller, W. , Margraf, J. (1998). Cognitive aspects of hypochondriasis and the somatization syndrome. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, , 587– 595 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sainz-de-la-Maza-Kaufmann, M. , Gonzalez-Kirchner, J.P. (1994). Patterns of reproduction among the Fang of Nsork (Equatorial Guinea): Pregnancies, abortions and child spacing. Revista De Biologia Tropical/Universada De Costa Rica, 42, 315– 318 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schenker, J.G. , Meirow, D. , Schenker, E. (1992). Stress and human reproduction. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 45, 1– 8 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Scheper-Hughes, N. (1992). Death without weeping: The violence of everyday life in Brazil . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Sear, R. , Steele, F. , McGregor, I.A. , Mace, R. (2002). The effects of kin on child mortality in rural Gambia. Demography, 39, 43– 63 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sherman, P.W. , Flaxman, S.M. (2002). Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in an evolutionary perspective. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 185, S190– S197 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, N.C. (1988). Epidemiology of spontaneous abortion. Contemporary Review of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1, 43– 48 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Spratley, E. , Taffel, S. (1981). Interval between births: United States, 1970-77. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics/National Center for Health Statistics, 21, 1– 47 . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Swanson, K.M. (2000). Predicting depressive symptoms after miscarriage: A path analysis based on the Lazarus paradigm. Journal of Women's Health and Gender Based Medicine, 9, 191– 206 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Swanson, K.M. , Karmali, Z.A. , Powell, S.H. , Pulvermakher, F. (2003). Miscarriage effects on couples' interpersonal and sexual relationships during the first year after loss: Women's perceptions. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 902– 910 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Toedter, L.J. , Lasker, J.N. , Alhadeff, J.M. (1988). The perinatal grief scale: Development and initial validation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 435– 449 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tooby, J. , Cosmides, L. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In J.H. Barkow (Ed.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 19-136). London: Oxford University Press . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wasser, S.K. (1994). Psychosocial stress and infertility - cause or effect?. Human Nature, 5, 293– 306 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wasser, S.K. (1999). Stress and reproductive failure: An evolutionary approach with applications to premature labor. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 180, 272– 274 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • World Health Organisation (1998a). The World Health Organization multinational study of breast-feeding and lactational amenorrhea. I. Description of infant feeding patterns and of the return of menses. World Health Organization task force on methods for the natural regulation of fertility. Fertility and Sterility, 70, 448– 460 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • World Health Organisation (1998b). The World Health Organization multinational study of breast-feeding and lactational amenorrhea. II. Factors associated with the length of amenorrhea. World Health Organization task force on methods for the natural regulation of fertility. Fertility and Sterility, 70, 461– 471 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • World Health Organisation & United Nations International Children's Fund (1996). Revised 1990 estimates of maternal mortality (Vol. 2002). World Health Organization . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wyss, P. , Biedermann, K. , Huch, A. (1994). Relevance of the miscarriage-new pregnancy interval. Journal of Perinatal Medicine, 22, 235– 241 . First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar