Ein modalitätsspezifisches Wortgedächtnis ist ausreichend: Wortgedächtnismodalität bei Leseanfängern und Neuronalen Netzen
Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Wortstruktureffekte besagen, dass bekannte Buchstabenfolgen von vertrauten Worten einfacher zu erinnern und leichter zu lesen sind, als weniger bekannte oder neue Buchstabenfolgen von seltener auftretenden Worten. Es ist daher einleuchtend, dass eine quantitative Zunahme an neuer Wortstruktur den Leseschwierigkeitsgrad vorhersagt. Z. B. sind Zahlworte leichter zu lesen als Reimworte mit neuem Wortanfang, und Reimworte sind wiederum leichter zu lesen als Nicht-Worte mit neuer Buchstabenfolge. Deutsche Leseanfänger zeigten jedoch nicht diesen häufig zu beobachtenden Wortstruktureffekt beim Lesen (Lange-Küttner, 2005). Hängt dies möglicherweise damit zusammen, dass sie eine Prävalenz des auditorischen Gedächtnisses beim Lesen haben (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993)? Es wurde daher bei englischsprachigen und deutschen Kindern der Zusammenhang des Lesens mit dem Wortstruktureffekt im auditiven vs. visuellen Wortgedächtnis analysiert. Während der Wortstruktureffekt im visuellen Gedächtnis bei allen Kindern vorhanden war, zeigte er sich im auditiven Gedächtnis nur bei den früh eingeschulten britischen Kindern. Lesen war mit dem visuellen Wortgedächtnis bei den englischsprachigen Kindern korreliert, jedoch mit dem auditiven Wortgedächtnis bei den deutschen Kindern. Auch neuronale Netze brauchten nur ein Arbeitsgedächtnis. Mögliche Auswirkungen der Selektivität des Arbeitsgedächtnisses auf das Lesen, sowie Folgen von unimodaler und bimodaler Wortrepräsentation bei Kindern und in neuronalen Netzen werden erörtert.
Abstract. Word structure effects denote that familiar letter sequences are easier to remember and to read than unfamiliar, or new letter sequences of less frequently occurring words. Thus, it is plausible that a quantitative increase of novel word structure would predict reading difficulty. E. g., number words would be easier to read than rhymed words with a new word onset, which in turn would be easier than non-words with a new letter sequence. However, German reading beginners did not show this word structure effect which can be observed so often (Lange-Küttner, 2005). Would this be the case due to a prevalence of their auditory memory (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993)? Hence, the contingency of reading and the word structure effect in visual and auditory memory was analyzed in English-speaking and German children. While in visual memory the word structure effect was present in all children, in auditory memory it appeared only in early-schooled British children. Reading was correlated with visual word memory in English-speaking children, but with auditory word memory in German children. Also neural networks needed only one working memory system. The possible effects of working memory selectivity on reading, and consequences of unimodal vs. bimodal word representation on children and neural networks are discussed.
Literatur
(2007). Automatic activation of phonology in silent reading is parallel: Evidence from beginning and skilled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 97, 205–219.
(2005). Working memory and phonological awareness as predictors of progress towards early learning goals at school entry. British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 23, 417–426.
(1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation Vol. 8 (pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.
(2005). Differential constraints on the working memory and reading abilities of individuals with learning difficulties and typically developing children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 92, 76–99.
(1994). Experimental Run Time System (ERTS), Version 3.0 and Experimental Run Time Coding System (ERTSCODE), Version 2.20. Frankfurt/M.: www.erts.de.
(2001). Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(1995). Phonological awareness and literacy development in children with expressive phonological impairments. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 38, 446–462.
(2004). Using nonword repetition to distinguish genetic and environmental influences on early literacy. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B (Neuropsychiatry Genetics) , 129B, 94–96.
(1998). Sensitivity to onset and rhyme does predict young children's reading: A comment on Muter, Hulme, Snowling and Taylor (1997). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 71, 29–37.
(2000). Les noms dobjets dans les conversations entre parents et jeunes enfants. Psychologie Francaise , 45, 187–192.
(1996). Letterland ABC . Cambridge: Letterland International.
(1992). Predicting growth in reading ability from children's exposure to print. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 54, 74–89.
(2009). Conditioning attentional skills: examining the effects of the pace of television editing on children's attention. Acta Pædiatrica , 98, 1651–1655.
(2002). Orthographic learning during reading: examining the role of self-teaching. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 82, 185–199.
(1998). The impact of print exposure on word recognition. In J. L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.). Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 235–262). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2003). Phonological neighbourhood density: Effects in a rhyme awareness task in five-year-old children. Journal of Child Language , 30, 695–710.
(2006). Understanding normal and impaired reading development: A working memory perspective. In S. J. Pickering (Ed.). Working memory and education (pp. 34–56). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
(1996). Early lexical development (Neuauflage, zuerst 1987 veröffentlicht bei Cambridge University Press). San Diego: Singular.
(1979). The mnemonic value of orthography among beginning readers. Journal of Educational Psychology , 71, 26–40.
(1985). Movement into reading: It the first stage of printed word learning visual or phonetic? Reading Research Quarterly , 20, 163–179.
(2004). Lengths, formats, neighbours, hemispheres, and the processing of words presented laterally or at fixation. Brain and Language , 88, 355–366.
(2005). Evaluating a split-fovea model of visual word recognition: effects of case alternation in the two visual fields and in the left and right halves of words presented at the fovea. Neuropsychologia , 43, 1128–1137.
(1988). Human cognitive neuropsychology . Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
(2007, 30. 11). Stealth curriculum is ’threat to all toddlers’. The Times , 69181–69182.
(2008). Pictorial intention, action and interpretation. In C. Lange-Küttner & A. Vinter (Eds.). Drawing and the non-verbal mind. A life-span perspective (pp. 110–126). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(2002). From language to reading and reading disability. In E. Witruk, A. D. Friederici & T. Lachmann (Eds.). Basic functions of language, reading and reading disability (pp. 9–21). Boston: Kluwer.
(1998). Differences in phonological recoding in German- and English-speaking children. Scientific Studies of Reading , 2, 31–54.
(2006a). Complexities and constraints in nonword repetition and word learning. Applied Psycholinguistics , 27, 599–613.
(2006b). Nonword repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship. Applied Psycholinguistics , 27, 513–543.
(1993). Working memory and language . Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
(1991). Nonword repetition, phonological memory, and vocabulary: A reply to Snowling, Chiat, and Hulme. Applied Psycholinguistics , 12, 375–379.
(1975). The psychology of reading . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
(2002). In the beginning was the rhyme? A reflection on Hulme, Hatcher, Nation, Brown, Adams, and Stuart (2002). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 82, 47–57.
(1992). Rhyme, analogy, and children's reading. In P.B. Gough, L. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.). Reading acquisition. (pp. 49–63). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1998). Children's orthographic representations and linguistic transparency: Nonsense word reading in English, French, and Spanish. Applied Psycholinguistics , 19, 19–52.
(1998). Rime-based coding in early reading development in English: Orthographic analogies and rime neighborhoods. In C. Hulme, C., & R. M. Joshi (Eds.). Reading and spelling: Development and disorders (pp. 69–86). Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum.
(1994). Reading by analogy: Theoretical and practical perspectives. In C. Hulme, & M. Snowling (Eds.). Reading development and dyslexia. (pp. 18–30). Philadelphia, PA: Whurr.
(2006). A developmental perspective on the neural code for written words. Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 10, 142–143.
(2003). Nonword reading across orthographies: How flexible is the choice of reading units? Applied Psycholinguistics , 24, 235–247.
(2005). The effects of spelling consistency on phonological awareness: A comparison of English and German. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 92, 345–365.
(2002). Language processing and short-term memory: The gradual phonological similarity effect and irrelevant speech. Psychologische Beiträge , 44, 203–222.
(2005). Faktorenanalyse von 57 Variablen der visuellen Worterkennung. Zeitschrift für Psychologie mit Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie und Sprache & Kognition , 213, 205–218.
(2003). Annotation: Hyperlexia: disability or superability? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 44, 1079–1091.
(1998). Effects of knowledge about cross-language equivalents on children's use of mutual exclusivity in interpreting novel labels. Japanese Psychological Research , 40, 82–91.
(1996). The nature and development of nonverbal implicit memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 63, 22–43.
(2005). The role of the left Brodmann's areas 44 and 45 in reading words and pseudowords. Cognitive Brain Research , 25, 982–993.
(2009). Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis , 68, 73–82.
(1982). Orthography and word recognition in reading . London: Academic Press.
(2007). Interhemispheric cooperation and non-cooperation during word recognition: evidence for callosal transfer dysfunction in dyslexic adults. Brain and Language , 103, 276–291.
(1980). The reader's implicit knowledge of orthographic structure. In U. Frith (Ed.). Cognitive processes in spelling (pp. 85–116). London: Academic Press.
(2002). Phonemes, rimes and the mechanisms of early reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 82, 58–64.
(2004). Do current connectionist learning models account for reading development in different languages? Cognition , 91, 273–296.
(1975). Sensory and cognitive determinants of reading speed. Journal of Verbal Learning and Behaviour , 14, 565–574.
(2005). Wortformgedächtnis als intuitive Statistik in Sprachen mit unterschiedlicher Konsistenz. Zeitschrift für Psychologie , 213, 133–141.
(2004). Accelerating the development of reading, spelling and phonemic awareness skills in initial readers. Reading and Writing , 17, 327–357.
(1997). The impact of orthographic consistency on dyslexia: A German-English comparison. Cognition , 63, 315–334.
(2005). Word structure effects in German and British reading beginners. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie/German Journal of Educational Psychologie , 19, 207–218.
(2009). Invited Commentary: Viewing and attention in children. Acta Paediatrica , 98, 1553–1555.
(1999). Reversed effects of familiarity and novelty in visual and auditory working memory for words. Brain and Cognition , 40, 159–162.
(2001). Word frequencies in written and spoken English . Harlow: Pearson Longman.
(2006). Development of Literacy. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (pp. 75–122). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1977). Phonetic segmentation and recoding in the beginning reader. In A. S. Reber & D. L. Scarborough (Eds.) Toward a psychology of reading: The proceedings of the CUNY Conferences (pp. 207–225). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2005). Detection theory (2nd edition). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2002). Phoneme awareness and pathways into literacy: A comparison of German and American children. Reading and Writing , 15, 653–682.
(1986). Surface dyslexia and beginning reading: a revised hypothesis of pronunciation of print and its impairments. In M. Coltheart, K. Patterson & J. C. Marshall (Eds.). Deep dyslexia (pp. 227–258). London: Routledge.
(1988). Children's use of mutual exclusivity to constrain the meanings of words. Cognitive Psychology , 20, 121–157.
(2002). Cross-cultural similarities in the predictors of reading acquisition. Child Development , 73, 1392–1407.
(1989). Parallel distributed processing: Implications for cognition and development In E.Morris (Ed.). Parallel distributed processing: Implications for psychology and neurobiology (pp. 8–45): Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press.
(1998). Introduction to connectionist modelling of cognitive processes . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
(1997). Restricting a familiar name in response to learning a new one: Evidence for the mutual exclusivity bias in young two-year-olds. Child Development , 68, 211–228.
(1994). Lexical decision after left, right and bilateral presentation of function words, content words and non-words: Evidence for interhemispheric interaction. Neuropsychologia , 32, 105–124.
(1994). Interhemispheric cooperation during lexical processing is mediated by the corpus callosum: evidence from the split-brain. Neuroscience Letters , 7, 17–21.
(1984). Development of phonetic memory in disabled and normal readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 37, 187–206.
(1980). Language and learning . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
(2007). Resource conservation as a basis for the mutual exclusivity effect in children's word learning. First Language , 27, 5–28.
(1996). Understanding normal and impaired reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review , 103, 56–115.
(1995). Reading exception words and pseudowords: Are two routes really necessary? In J.P. Levy & D. Bairaktaris (Eds.). Connectionist models of memory and language (pp. 145–159). London: UCL Press.
(1994). Connectionist modelling in cognitive neuropsychology . Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
(1994). Acquiring the mapping from meaning to sounds. Connection Science , 6, 379–412.
(1997). Exercises in rethinking innateness. A handbook for connectionist simulations . Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
(1999). A connectionist model of English past tense and plural morphology. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal , 23, 463–490.
(1993). From rote learning to system building: Acquiring verb morphology in children and connectionist nets. Cognition , 48, 21–69.
(2002). Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 131, 65–72.
(1996). The concept of transcortical cell assemblies: a key to the understanding of lateralization and interhemispheric interaction. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 20, 557–566.
(1994). Brain rhythms, cell assemblies and cognition: Evidence from the processing of words and pseudowords. Psycoloquy , 5.
(1996). Die Berechnung von Assoziationen . Hildesheim: Olms Verlag.
(2008). Lernen mit Multimedia. Die kognitiven Grundlagen des Modalitätseffekts. Psychologische Rundschau , 59, 98–107.
(1979). Practice effects on the unit of word recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology , 71, 514–520.
(2004). Predicting growth of nonword reading and letter-sound knowledge following rime- and phoneme-based teaching. Journal of Research in Reading , 27, 195–211.
(1996). What word learners do when input contradicts the mutual exclusivity assumption. Child Development , 67, 3120–3134.
(2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology , 94, 143–174.
(1984). Division of attention among spatial locations: A fundamental difference between detection of letters and detection of luminance decrements. In H. Bouma & D. G. Bouwhuis (Eds.), Attention and performance X. Control of language processes (pp. 109–121). London: Erlbaum.
(2000). Eye-fixation behaviour, lexical storage and visual word recognition in a split processing model. Psychological Review , 107, 824–857.
(1993). Phonological processing deficits as the basis of a reading disability. Developmental Review , 13, 246–257.
(1994). Working memory and reading: A life-span perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development , 17, 109–124.
(1999). Calculation of signal detection measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers , 31, 137–149.
(1983). Joint attention and lexical acquisition style. First Language , 4, 197–211.
(1996). The non-word reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: Evidence from children learning to read German. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 61, 80–90.
(1994). The influence of orthographic consistency on reading development: word recognition in English and German children. Cognition , 51, 91–103.
(2007). The neural substrate of visual perceptual learning of words: Implications for the visual word form area hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 19, 1643–1655.
(2001). Effects of visual familiarity for words on interhemispheric cooperation for lexical processing. Cognitive Brain Research , 12, 409–414.
(2005). Reading Acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin , 131, 3–29.
(2001). Identical words are read differently in different languages. Psychological Science , 12, 379–384.
(1997). Phonology can help or hurt the perception of print. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 23, 845–860.
