Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigation
Previous article
Next article
Originalarbeit

Grit bei Adoleszenten: eine „neue“ leistungsthematisch-motivationale Eigenschaft?

Published Online:October 14, 2019https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652/a000247

Abstract

Zusammenfassung. Untersucht wurde das „neue“ Persönlichkeitskonstrukt „Grit“, das die zwei korrelierten Primärfaktoren „beharrliche Anstrengungsbereitschaft“ („Perseverance of Effort“, PE) und „konsistentes Interesse“ („Constistency of Interest“, CI) in einem Wert zusammenfasst. Grit soll nach Duckworth (2016) Erfolg in Schule, Hochschule, Beruf und Leben besser als Intelligenz und klassische Persönlichkeitsvariablen vorhersagen. Credé, Tynan und Harms (2017) bezweifelten als Resultat ihrer Metaanalyse die hierarchische Grit-Struktur, die behauptete starke Vorhersagekraft für akademische Leistungen konnten sie nicht bestätigen. Weiterhin wurde eine sehr hohe Korrelation von PE mit Gewissenhaftigkeit ermittelt. Bisherige Studien stammen hauptsächlich aus individualistisch orientierten Gesellschaften. Deshalb wurde Grit in einer kollektivistisch orientierten Kultur (China) untersucht (N = 533, Alter: M = 15.16 Jahre, SD = 0.64). Zusätzlich erhoben wir Gewissenhaftigkeit, schulische Selbstwirksamkeit und schulisches Selbstkonzept. Das Mittel der schulischen Fachleistungspunkte wurde berechnet. Die Gesamtstichprobe wurde in zwei randomisierte Substichproben geteilt. Explorative Hauptkomponentenanalysen (Substichprobe 1: n1 = 200) und konfirmatorische Faktorenanalysen (Substichprobe 2: n2 = 333) der Grit-Items erbrachten zwei unkorrelierte Dimensionen, PE und CI. PE korrelierte sehr hoch mit Gewissenhaftigkeit (r = .73, doppelt schrumpfungskorrigiert: r ∞, ∞ = .90). Die Beziehungen von PE zu Selbstwirksamkeit und Selbstkonzept waren hoch (r = .55 bzw. r = .58), zur Schulleistung sehr niedrig (r = .08). CI hing nur mit Selbstwirksamkeit bzw. Selbstkonzept schwach zusammen (r = –.13 bzw. r = –.15), nicht mit Gewissenhaftigkeit (r = .01) und dem Durchschnitt der Schulleistungspunkte (r = –.02). Alles zusammen begründet Zweifel an Grit als „neues“ und valides leistungsbezogen-motivationales Persönlichkeitsmerkmal – zumindest bei chinesischen Adoleszenten.


Abstract.Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelley (2007) introduced “grit” as a “new” performance-related motivational trait. It is conceptualized as a higher-order factor which is based on the amalgamation of the two primary factors “Perseverance of Effort” (PE) and “Consistency of Interest” (CI). Duckworth (2016) claimed that grit predicts academic achievement better than intelligence and traditional personality traits. A meta-analysis by Credé, Tynan, and Harms (2017) did not at all confirm Duckworth's assertion and casted doubts on the higher-order structure of grit and on the predictive power of grit for academic performance. Moreover, this meta-analysis revealed that PE is strongly related to conscientiousness. Most grit studies were conducted in individualistic oriented (western) cultures. Research comprising samples from collectivistic (far eastern) cultures is scare. The present study is aimed to shed some light on the factorial structure and performance related validity of the original grit-scale among a sample of N = 533 Han-Chinese middle-school students (age: M = 15.16, SD = 0.64). Conscientiousness, academic self-efficacy, and academic self-concept were additionally measured. The Grade Point Average (GPA) was used as an indicator of academic performance. The sample was randomly split into two subsamples. Principal component analyses (subsample 1: n1 = 200) and confirmatory factor analyses (subsample 2: n2 = 333) revealed two completely independent dimensions, PE and CI, thus indicating that the amalgamation of both facets into one single grit-score made no sense. The internal consistencies of the PE-scale and of the CI-scale were satisfactory. A very high correlation of the PE-scale with conscientiousness was found (r = .73, after correction for attenuation r ∞,∞ = .90) as well as high correlations with self-efficacy (r = .58) and self-concept (r = .55). The relationship of PE with GPA was insignificant and small (r = .08). The CI-scale was not all related to GPA (r = –.02) and conscientiousness (r = .01) and weakly correlated with self-efficacy (r = –.13) and self-concept (r = –.15). Taken together, these findings cast serious doubts on grit as a new and valid achievement tied motivational construct – at least among Chinese adolescents.

Literatur

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2010). IBM SPSS Amos 19 user's guide. Crawfordville, FL: Amos Development Corporation. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bahnik, Š. & Vranka, M. (2017). General and domain-specific grit both show a negative association with scholastic aptitude in a large sample of university applicants. Verfügbar unter: https://osf.io/nh88v/ First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bartlett, M. S. (1954). A note on the multiplying factors for various chi square approximations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 16, 296 – 298. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bazelais, P., Lemay, D. J. & Doleck, T. (2016). How does grit impact college students' academic achievement in science? European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 4, 33 – 43. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Beierl, E. T., Bühner, M. & Heene, M. (2018). Is that measure really one-dimensional? Nuisance parameters can mask severe model misspecification when assessing factorial validity. Methodology, 14, 188 – 196. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241/a000158. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Bühner, M. (2010). Einführung in die Test- und Fragebogenkonstruktion (3. Aufl.). München: Pearson. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Calvin, C. M., Fernandes, C., Smith, P., Visscher, P. M. & Deary, I. J. (2010). Sex, intelligence and educational achievement in a national cohort of over 175,000 11-year-old schoolchildren in England. Intelligence, 38, 424 – 432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245 – 276. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Chen, C., Ye, S. & Hangen, E. (2018). Predicting achievement goals in the East and West: The role of grit among American and Chinese university students. Educational Psychology, 38, 820 – 837. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.145897 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Christ, O. & Schlüter, E. (2012). Strukturgleichungsmodelle mit Mplus – Eine praktische Einführung. München: Oldenbourg. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Çikrikci, Ö. (2017). The effect of self-efficacy on student achievement. In Karadağ, E. (Ed.), The factors effecting student achievement. Meta-analysis of empirical studies (pp. 95 – 116). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56083-0_6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2. Aufl.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cormier, D. L., Dunn, J. G. H. & Causgrove Dunn, J. (2019). Examining the domain specifity of grit. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 349 – 354. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Credé, M. (2018). What shall we do about grit? A critical review of what we know and what we don't know. Educational Researcher, 20 (10), 1 – 6. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18801322 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Credé, M. (2019). The total grit score does not represent perseverance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 3941. htpps://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1816934116 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Credé, M. & Harms, P. D. (2015). 25 years of higher-order confirmatory factor analysis in the organizational sciences: A critical review and development of reporting recommendations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36, 845 – 872. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Credé, M., Tynan, M. C. & Harms, P. D. (2017). Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113, 492 – 511. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000102 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Datu, J. A. D., Valdez, J. P. & King, R. B. (2016). Perseverance counts but consistency does not! Validating the short grit scale in a collectivist setting. Current Psychology, 35, 121 – 130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-015-9374-2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Datu, J. A. D., Yuen, M. & Chen, G. (2017). Development and validation of the Triarchic Model of Grit Scale (TMGS): Evidence from Filipino undergraduate students. Personality and Individual Differences, 114, 198 – 205. https://doi.org/10/1016/j.paid.2017.04.012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • De Ridder, D. T. D., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stock, F. M. & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 76 – 99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • De Young, C. G. (2015). Cybernetic big five theory. Journal of Research in Personality, 56, 33 – 58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp. 2014.07.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Dinno, A. (2009). Exploring the sensitivity of Horn's parallel analysis to the distributional form of random data. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44, 362 – 388. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170902938969 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Duckworth, A. L. (2013). TED talks education: Grit – the power of passion and perseverance. Video verfügbar unter https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance?language=de Transkript verfügbar unter https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance/transcript First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit. The power of passion and perseverance. New York, NY: Scribner. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Duckworth, A. L. (2017). Grit. Die neue Formel zum Erfolg. Mit Begeisterung und Ausdauer ans Ziel. München: Bertelsmann. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D. & Kelley, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087 – 1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Duckworth, A. L. & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short Grit Scale (Grit–S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166 – 174. https://doi.org/10.1080/002238908028344290 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Dulay, S. (2017). The effect of self-concept on student achievement. In Karadağ, E. ( Ed. ), The factors effecting student achievement. Meta-analysis of empirical studies (pp. 117 – 132). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56083-0_7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Dumfart, B. & Neubauer, A. (2016). Conscientiousness is the most powerful noncognitive predictor of school achievement in adolescents. Journal of Individual Differences, 37, 8 – 15. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000182 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Dziuban, C. D. & Shirkey, E. C. (1974). When is a correlation matrix appropriate for factor analysis? Some decision rules. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 358 – 361. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036316 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., Beal, S. A. & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 36. https://doi.org/10/103389/fpsyg.2014.00036 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A. & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340 – 347. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902317361886 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Feng, X. & Rost, D. H. (2015). Selbstberichtete Zeugnisdaten: weitere Evidenz für ihre (partielle) Brauchbarkeit. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 62, 253 – 264. https://doi.org/10.2378/peu2015.art19d First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Feng, X., Rost, D. H. & Zhang, D. (2015). Akademische Selbstwirksamkeit oder fachbezogene Selbstwirksamkeiten? Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 47, 159 – 172. https://doi.org/10.1026/0049-8637/a000132 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Feng, X., Wang, J.-L & Rost, D. H. (2017). Akademische Selbstkonzepte bei chinesischen Studenten und Studentinnen der Germanistik sowie Schülern und Schülerinnen: Struktur und psychometrische Bewährung des DISK-Gitters. Diagnostica, 63, 269 – 284. https://doi.org/10.1026/0012-1924/a000183 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Ferrari, J. R., Johnson, J. L. & McCown, W. G. (1995). Procrastination and task avoidance. Theory, research, and treatment. New York, NY: Plenum 1995. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fleckenstein, J., Schmidt, F. T. C. & Möller, J. (2014). Wer hat Biss? Beharrlichkeit und beständiges Interesse von Lehramtsstudierenden. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 61, 281 – 286. https://doi.org/10.2378/peu2014art22d First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Floyd, F. J. & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7, 286 – 299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.286 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gorsuch, R. L. (1988). Exploratory factor analysis. In J. R. NesselroadeR. B. Cattell (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (2nd ed., pp. 231 – 258). New York, NY: Plenum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gruenberg, K. G., Brock, T. & MacDougall, C. (in press). Longitudinal associations between Grit, academic outcomes, and residency match in pharmacy students. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. https://www.ajpe.org/doi/abs/10.5688/ajpe6947 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Grunschel, C. & Fries, S. (2018). Prokrastination. In D. H. RostJ. R. SparfeldtS. R. Buch (Hrsg.), Handwörterbuch Pädagogische Psychologie (5. Aufl., S. 665 – 672). Weinheim: Beltz. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Guadagnoli, E. & Velicer, W. F. (1988). Relation of sample size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 10, 265 – 275. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Guo, J., Tang, X. & Xu, K. M. (2019). Capturing the multiplicative effect of perseverance and passion: Measurement issues of combining two grit facets. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 3938 – 3940. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820125116 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Guttman, L. (1954). Some necessary conditions for common-factor analysis. Psychometrika, 19, 149 – 161. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289162 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Henrich, J., Heine, S. J. & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61 – 83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179 – 185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hu, L. & Bentler, P. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1 – 55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Huang, C. (2012). Discriminant and incremental validity of self-concept and academic self-efficacy: A meta analysis. Educational Psychology, 32, 777 – 805. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012.732386 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hülsheger, U. R. & Maier, G. W. (2008). Persönlichkeitseigenschaften, Intelligenz und Erfolg im Beruf. Eine Bestandsaufnahme internationaler und nationaler Forschung. Psychologische Rundschau, 59, 108 – 122. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042.59.2.108 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Jachimowicz, J. M., Wihler, A., Bailey, E., & Galinsky, A. D. (2018). Why grit requires perseverance and passion to positively predict performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115, 9980 – 9985. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803561115 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jachimowicz, J. M., Wihler, A., Bailey, E., & Galinsky, A. D. (2019). Reply to Guo et al. and Credé: Grit-S scale measures only perseverance, not passion, and its supposed subfactors are merely artifactors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 3942 – 3944. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821668116 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g Factor. The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Jerusalem, M. & Satow, L. (1999). Schulbezogene Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung (WIRKSCHUL). In R. SchwarzerM. Jerusalem (Hrsg.), Skalen zur Erfassung von Lehrer- und Schülermerkmalen (S. 15 – 16). Berlin: Freie Universität. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Jöreskog, K. G. & Sörbom, D. (1989). Lisrel 7: A guide to the program and applications (2nd ed.). Chicago, Il: SPSS. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 141 – 151. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446002000116 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31 – 36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kalia, V, Thomas, R, Osowski, K & Drew, A (2018). Staying alert? Neural correlates of the association between grit and attention networks. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, article 1377. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01377 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Karlen, Y., Maag Merki, K., Hirt, C. & Suter, F. (2018). Sind Gymnasiastinnen und Gymnasiasten mit mehr Grit erfolgreicher? Untersuchung der Zusammenhänge zwischen Grit, selbstreguliertem Lernen und Lernerfolg. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 46, 437 – 459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42010-018-0030-z First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kaufman, S. B., Reynolds, M. R., Liu, X., Kaufman, A. S. & McGrew, K. S. (2012). Are cognitive g and academic achievement g one and the same g? An exploration on the Woodcock-Johnson and Kaufman tests. Intelligence, 40, 123 – 138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.3012.01.009 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kramer, J. (2009). Allgemeine Intelligenz und beruflicher Erfolg in Deutschland. Vertiefende und weiterführende Metaanalyse. Psychologische Rundschau, 60, 82 – 98. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042.60.2.82 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Lee, S. & Sohn, Y. W. (2017). Effects of grit on academic achievement and career-related attitudes of college students in Korea. Social Behavior and Personality, 45, 1629 – 1642. https://doi.org/10.2224//sbp.6400 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Li, Y., Sheldon, K. M., Rouder, J. N., Bergin, D. A. & Geary, D. C. (2018). Long-term prospects and college students' academic performance. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment (online first). https://doi.org/0.1177/0734282918764202 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Li, J., Zhao, Y., Kong, F., Du, S., Yang, S. & Wang, S. (2018). Psychometric assessment of the short grit scale among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 36, 291 – 296. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916674548 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Li, J., Zhao, Y., Lin, J., Chen, J. & Wang, S. (2018). The freedom to persist: Belief in free will predicts perseverance for long-term goals among Chinese adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 121, 7 – 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.011 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Linacre, J.M. (2002). Optimizing rating scale category effectiveness. Journal of Applied Measurement, 3, 85 – 106. https://doi.org./10.1.1.424.2811&rep=rep1&tye=pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Luthans, K. W., Luthans, B. C. & Chaffin, T. D. (2019). Refining grit in academic performance: The mediational role of psychological capital. Journal of Management Education, 2019, 43. 35 – 61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562918804282 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Miller, C. A. (2017). Getting grit. The evidence based approach to cultivating passion, perseverance, and purpose. Boulder, CO: Sounds True. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Miller, M. S. (2018). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance [book review]. Tabletalk, August, 1. https://tabletalkmagazine.com/posts/2018/08/book-review-grit-by-angela-duckworth/ First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Muenks, K., Wigfield, A., Yang, J. S. & O'Neal, C. R. (2017). How true is grit? Assessing its relations to high school and college students' personality characteristics, self-regulation, engagement, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109, 599 – 620. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000153 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Muenks, K., Yang, J. S. & Wigfield, A. (2018). Associations between grit, motivation, and achievement in high school students. Motivation Science, 4, 158 – 176. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000076 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Oriol, X., Miranda, R., Oyanedel, J. C. & Torres, J. (2017). The role of self-control and grit in domains of school success in students of primary and secondary school. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, article 1716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01716 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Palisoc, A. J. L., Matsumoto, R. R., Ho, J., Perry, P. J., Tang, T. T., Ip, E. J. et al. (2017). Relationship between grit with academic performance and attainment of postgraduate training in pharmacy students. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 81 (4), article 67. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe81467 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Raphipatthana, B., Jose, P. & Salmon, K. (2018). Does dispositional mindfulness predict the development of grit? Journal of Individual Differences, 39. 76 – 87. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000252 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Richardson, M., Abraham, C. & Bond, R. (2012). Correlates of university students' academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 353 – 387. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026838 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rimfield, K., Kovas, Y., Dale, P. S. & Plomin, R. (2016). True grit and genetics: Predicting academic achievement from personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111, 780 – 789. https://doi.org/10.1037/psapp0000089 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ris, E. W. (2015). Grit: A short history of a useful concept. Journal of Educational Controversy, 10 (1), article 3. Verfügbar unter https://cedar.wwu.edu/jec/vol10/iss1/3 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rojas, J. P. & Tyler, K. M. (2018). Measuring the creative process: A psychometric examination of creative ideation and grit. Creativity Research Journal, 30, 29 – 40. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2018.1411546 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rollett, B. A. & Bartram, M. (1998). Anstrengungsvermeidungstest (3. Aufl.). Göttingen: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rollett, B. & Rollett, M. (2018). Anstrengungsvermeidung. In D. H. RostJ. R. SparfeldtS. R. Buch (Hrsg.), Handwörterbuch Pädagogische Psychologie (5. Aufl., S. 8 – 14). Weinheim: Beltz. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rost, D. H. (2013a). Handbuch Intelligenz. Weinheim: Beltz. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rost, D. H. (2013b). Interpretation und Bewertung pädagogisch-psychologischer Studien (3. Aufl.). Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rost, D. H., Sparfeldt, J. R. & Schilling, S. R. (2007). DISK-Gitter mit SKSLF-8. Differentielles schulisches Selbstkonzept-Gitter mit Skala zur Erfassung des Selbstkonzepts schulischer Leistungen und Fähigkeiten. Göttingen: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Satow, L. (2012). Big Five Persönlichkeitstest (B5T). Test und Skalendokumentation. Version 2012. Zugriff am 01.09.2018. Verfügbar unter https://www.drsatow.de/tests/persoenlichkeitstest/B5T-Testdokumentation.pdf. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H. & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8 (2), 23 – 74. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schiefele, U., Krapp, A. & Schreier, I. (1993). Metaanalyse des Zusammenhangs von Interesse und schulischer Leistung. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 10, 120 – 148. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schmidt, F. T. C., Fleckenstein, J., Retelsdorf, J. & Eskreis-Winkler, L. & Möller, J. (2017). Measuring grit. A German validation and a domain-specific approach to grit. European Journal of Psychological Assessment (online first). https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000407 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schmidt, F. T. C., Nagy, G., Fleckenstein, J., Möller, J. & Retelsdorf, J. (2018). Same same, but different? Relations between facets of conscientiousness and grit. European Journal of Personality, 32, 705 – 720. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2171 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Shechtman, N., deBarger, A. H., Dornsife, C., Rosier, S. & Yarnall, L. (2013). Promoting grit, tenacity, and perseverance: Critical factors for success in the 21st century. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. Verfügbar unter http://pgbovine.net / OET-Draft-Grit-Report-2-17-13.pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Shek, D. T. L. & Chan, L. K. (1999). Hong Kong Chinese parents' perceptions of the ideal child. The Journal of Psychology – Interdisciplinary and Applied, 13, 291 – 302. https://doi.org/10/1080/00223989909599742 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Solomon, L. J. & Rothblum, E. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 503 – 509. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sparfeldt, J. R., Buch, S. R., Rost, D. H. & Lehmann, G. (2008). Akkuratesse selbstberichteter Zensuren. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 55, 68 – 75. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Steinmayr, R., Weidinger, A. F. & Wigfield, A. (2018). Does students' grit predict their school achievement above and beyond their personality, motivation and engagement? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 53, 106 – 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.02.004. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stelzl, I. (2005). Fehler und Fallen der Statistik: für Psychologen, Pädagogen und Sozialwissenschaftler. Münster: Waxmann First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Stevenson, H. W. & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap. New York, NY: Summit. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Sturman, E. D. & Zappala-Piemme, K. (2017). Development of the grit scale for children and adults and its relation to student efficacy, test anxiety, and academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 59, 1 – 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.7.08.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, IL: Pearson. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F. & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271 – 324. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tough, P. (2012). How children succeed. Grit, curiosity, and the hidden power of character. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Trapmann, S. (2008). Mehrdimensionale Studienerfolgsprognose: Die Bedeutung kognitiver, temperamentsbedingter und motivationaler Prädiktoren für verschiedene Kriterien des Studienerfolgs. Berlin: Logos. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tyumeneva, Y., Kardanova, E. & Kuzmina, J. (2017). Grit. Two related but independent constructs instead of one. Evidence from item response theory. European Journal of Psychological Assessment (advance article). https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000424 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Vazsonyi, A. T., Ksinan., A. J., Ksinan Jiskrova, G., Mikuška, J., Javakhishvili, M. & Cui, G. (2019). To grit or not to grit, that is the question! Journal of Research in Personality, 72, 271 – 322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.12.006 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Von Culin, K. R., Tsukayama, E. & Duckworth, A. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9, 306 – 312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Walker, C. O (2017). Exploring the contributions of grit and personality in the prediction of self- and other-forgiveness. Journal of Individual Differences, 38, 196 – 202. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000236 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Walters, C. A. & Hussain, M. (2015). Investigating grit and its relations with college students’ self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Metacognition and Learning, 10, 293 – 311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-014-9128-9. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Watkins, M. W. (2000). Monte carlo PCA for parallel analysis. State College, PA: Ed & Psych Associates. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • West, S. G., Finch, J. F. & Curran, P. L. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modelling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56 – 75). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wittmann, W. W. (2002). Brunswik-Symmetrie: Ein Schlüsselkonzept für erfolgreiche psychologische Forschung. In M. Myrtek (Hrsg.), Die Person im biologischen und sozialen Kontext (S. 163 – 186). Göttingen: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wolf, H.-G. & Bacher, J. (2010). Hauptkomponentenanalyse und explorative Faktorenanalyse. In Wolf, C. & Best, H. (Hrsg.). Handbuch der sozialwissenschaftlichen Datenanalyse (S. 333 – 390). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Woods, A. (1983). Principal components and factor analysis in the investigation of the structure of language proficiency. In A. HughesD. Porter (Eds.), Current developments in language testing (pp. 43 – 52). London: Academic Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Zhong, C., Wang, M-C., Shou, Y., Ren, F., Zhang, X., Li, M. & Yang W. (2019). Assessing construct validity of the Grit-S in Chinese employees. PLOS one, 13 (12), e0209319, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209319 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar