Likes and hashtags: Influence of athlete social media use
Abstract
Abstract:Introduction: The use of various forms of social media has exploded worldwide and is popular among athletes. To date, much research has focused on the potential impact of traditional print media on athletes’ mental health. This study aims to review current literature specifically as it relates to the use of digital social media and athlete mental wellness, identify current research gaps, and present suggestions for future related studies. Methods: A literature review was conducted using PubMed, a database of references on medical research maintained by the US National Library of Medicine and the National Institute of health. Search terms included “social media”, “digital media” and “athlete mental health”. Results: The collection of published works provided insight on athlete social media use and body image, stress, sleep quality, performance, social connection, and financial implications. Conclusion: Given the psychological and physiological demands of sport, athletes may experience mental health issues that could be exacerbated by social media use. This is an emerging area of research, and there is currently a lack of sufficient data regarding the direct influence of social media upon the mental health of athletes. Training athletes, coaches, trainers, and healthcare providers on the pitfalls of social media use can promote healthy social media consumption.
Background/Introduction
Traditional print media relies on objective reporting by journalists. Digital social media has altered the way we interact with others, gather information, and build connections around the world. Popular social media formats Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, TikTok and WhatsApp enable users to share information via text, audio, photographs, and video files [1, 2]. In 2023, 4.9 billion people used social media applications, with seventy to ninety percent of Americans accessing social media daily [2, 3]. Psychological implications of social media exposure in the general population have been studied; the data show longer time spent on social media positively correlates with levels of depression, anxiety, psychological distress, and body image disturbance [4, 5].
Reports suggest that American adults spend an average of 127 minutes daily on social media [2]. Athletes engage in higher volumes of social media consumption than the average person; over 80% of athletes reported two or more hours of social media use daily, with a mean of 4 hours of use per day [3, 6]. Athletes are subject to social media scrutiny of their physical appearance and competitive performance [1, 7, 8]. There is a paucity of published research dedicated to exploring the mental health implications of social media specifically for athletes. Thus, this paper aims to clarify the current state of data on athlete social media use and mental health, and to identify research gaps.
Methods
A literature review was conducted using PubMed.gov, a database of references on medical research maintained by the US National Library of Medicine and the National Institute of health. Keywords searched included “social media”, “digital media”, “athletes”, and “athlete mental health” during May and June of 2023. No filters were placed on the queries. All publications resulting from these searches were analyzed by the authors for relevance to the current topic. Institutional websites (i.e., the National Football League and the International Olympic Committee) were also searched to identify opportunities for athletes to engage in social media training.
Results
26 results were identified that directly or indirectly referenced social media, mental health and athletes. Based on the information provided in the studies, the following distinct subtopics of athlete mental health and social medial were identified: body image and disordered eating, stress and burnout, sleep hygiene, sports performance, financial gain, and personal connection.
Discussion
Body Image Disturbance
Previous research has found athletes are at higher risk of developing eating disorders and disordered eating than the general population [7]. Social media postings can perpetuate inaccurate and unrealistic physical expectations for athletes by the viewing of pictures, videos, and other social media representations [7, 8]. Higher reported daily social media use was related to more negative self-perception in one study [6]. A recent qualitative study showed increased stress related to sports and social media pressures (rather than pressure from the sport itself) elevated the risk of disordered eating [7]. Female athletes face scrutiny specifically directed at their appearance. Depictions of female athletes on social media more frequently present objectified and sexualized images [7]. Rude and hurtful comments from strangers about physical appearance, which would otherwise go unnoticed, are now more visible to the athlete via “likes” and “DMs” [7]. Social media also enables and intensifies comparison to competitors’ body types [6, 7]. Studies of social media use in the general population show a positive correlation between use and body image disturbance and compulsive exercise [5, 9]; thus, the implications of added social media pressure on athletes’ body image and disordered eating requires further research to determine if specific risk factors present actionable opportunities for meaningful interventions.
Stress and Burnout
Athletes navigate psychological and physical demands of training and travel, restricted free time and demanding schedules. They may feel pressured performance expectations from coaches, teammates, fans, and themselves [1, 10, 11]. Social media commentary on athletes’ performance can further exacerbate stress, anxiety, mental fatigue, and cognitive load [1, 10, 12]. Athletes also experience stress or pressure to positively represent their team, sport, or institution on social media [1, 10]. Intense external pressures placed on athletes to perform can increase stress and anxiety, hindering performance; USA gymnast Simone Biles exemplified this by withdrawing from competition in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics due to mental health strain [12]. Biles was later quoted as saying, “I have to focus on my mental health and not jeopardize my mental health and wellbeing” [13]. The NCAA’s recent Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) ruling allows collegiate athletes to profit from use of their own image; there is concern that the pressure to create social media content for profit may place additional mental health stress on athletes [1]. We feel continued monitoring of student and elite level athletes for stress and burnout related to social media by the healthcare team and coaches use is warranted. This could involve routine mental health “check ins” or ongoing meetings discussing social media; the monitoring would likely need to be catered to the specific team or individual.
Sleep patterns
The timing and duration of social media consumption has been associated with sleep disturbances. Social media use is shown to disturb both sleep quality and quantity, especially among young adults and teens [6, 14, 15, 16]. The reason for decreased sleep quality and quantity related to social media use is likely multifactorial; researchers are currently exploring connections between sleep deficits and hormonal imbalances, disruptions to circadian rhythms due to light wavelengths emitted by electronic devices, and increased sleep latency due to stress or arousal from social media [10, 15, 16]. Nighttime social media use independently predicts poor sleep quality [16]. One study found athletes engaged in social media use within one hour of sleep on 70% of the nights studied [11]. College student athletes reporting more than five hours of social media use showed far worse sleep [3]. Studies on gendered differences in sleep and social media use show positive correlation between stress caused by social media use and sleep latency in young females [15]. Thus, current research has shown negative consequences to overall sleep with social media use; additional research has illuminated the relationship of poor sleep and performance.
Sports performance
Poor sleep quality affects sports performance and injury recovery, impairs cognitive function and increases mental fatigue [3, 11, 14, 17]. The National Basketball Association (NBA) examined social media use in relation to sleep deprivation, finding that late night tweets correlated with decreased game performance the next day (measured by points and rebounds) [18]. Youth soccer players have increased injury risk with less than 8 hours of sleep [19]. Independent of sleep, athletes exhibit disrupted attention, concentration, memory, and executive functioning during training with pre-performance social media use [10, 11, 17]. Just thirty minutes of social media use prior to training increased perceived mental fatigue, impaired training-related decision making, and decreased response times in volleyball players and adults specifically trained in study-related physical skills [17, 20]. Cricket, rugby, and netball players reported mental fatigue after social media use [21]. Soccer players showed impaired technical performance and endurance after pre-training social media scrolling, while swimmers who scrolled failed to make endurance training improvements [21]. A recent study showed decreased next day performance correlated with time spent on Facebook versus other social media apps [3]. The available studies indicate that social media use increases cognitive load on the athlete, decreasing the ability to attend to sport-specific tasks.
Financial incentives
Social media can be used to benefit the athlete. Athletes can derive a significant portion of their income from connections fostered in digital media spaces by using social media for self-promotion, recruitment, and securing sponsors [1]. Generally, larger numbers of followers on social media will correlate with more financial opportunities for athletes. Social media posts can create opportunities for lucrative “exposure”; one study found high school students’ Twitter activity to be a significant predictor of the number of college football scholarship offers they received [22]. Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) fighters post radiographic images of their injuries to connect with fans and raise their popularity, leading to larger payouts for future fights [23]. The ability of brands and advertisers to reach out to athletes is enhanced by social media connections.
Personal connection
Social media can enhance team communication, build social connections and emotional support, and provide platforms to champion important causes [1, 10]. Various apps can be an important means of fostering meaningful connections and building a community within a team or more globally with the sporting community [10]. College athletes noted social media’s ability to enhance team cohesion and communication, even enabling benched or rookie players to feel that they are a part of the team [10]. Athletes may have rigorous travel schedules; social media allows for continued connection with support networks across distance [10]. Numerous athletes have used their social media presence to advocate for social justice or promote nonprofit work; after the 2020 death of George Floyd several National Football League (NFL) players used their social media to protest police brutality [1]. Viewed broadly, the ability to positively enhance social connectedness is felt to be protective to mental wellness [10].
Social media training
Healthy social media consumption and interaction is a skill that can be learned and developed [1]. Media training needs to include proactive engagement in positive social media interactions, self-image and brand management, and education about establishing sponsor relationships [12]. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) offers athletes media education covering topics of media interactions, developing sponsor relationships, image curating and crisis management [1]; the IOC has also developed a toolkit to assist athletes with developing a personal brand [24]. The NFL also offers players media training with specific emphasis on social media interactions [25]. Although media training is frequently offered for collegiate athletes, the curriculum is not standardized and may not place emphasis on healthy social media consumption [1]. To date, no published research is available regarding the efficacy of these programs. Ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of these programs can continue to shape their evolution. Athletes and healthcare teams can advocate that sport governing bodies partner with independent advisory councils to provide formal media training and guidance [12]. We acknowledge the effect that these apps can have on mental wellness and performance. The available research should encourage sports psychiatrists and team physicians, coaches, trainers, and athletes to support social media engagement that does not impede functioning or cause distress.
Limitations and directions for future research
The small size of available studies to review for this article is both a limitation and an opportunity for further research in this emerging area. Specifically, we would advocate for studies further evaluating use of social media and disordered eating, sports performance, and mood disorders in athletes. As more programs for media training develop, ongoing evaluation of their usefulness will need to be conducted.
Conclusion
Limited data show that social media use by athletes affects body image, stress levels, sleep quality and athletic performance [7, 10, 15, 17, 21]. These apps can also foster engagement and connection, secure financial support, and build team cohesion; thus, social media use must be viewed on a continuum [10, 12]. Performance data suggests that coaches, trainers, sports psychologists, and physicians encourage athletes to disengage from social media at least 2 hours prior to competition to avoid mental fatigue [17]. Young female athletes specifically should be warned about the risks of poor sleep quality and quality related to nighttime social media scrolling that can affect athletic performance [15]. Social media training would likely benefit athletes at all levels.
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