Genetic Contributions to Individual Differences in Memory Performance
Abstract
This paper discusses generally the potential effects of genetic markers on individual differences in cognitive performance. Research on the role of two genetic markers related to the immune system—complement factor C3 and haptoglobin—and one genetic marker—apolipoprotein E (ApoE)—and the interaction with environmental conditions of cognitive support at memory encoding and retrieval are discussed in particular. Data from an ongoing longitudinal study are used to illustrate that the two markers of the immune system are strongly associated with performance in episodic memory tasks, although there is no association to semantic memory. Cross-sectional data reveal a relatively weak association between apolipoprotein E and memory performance. Preliminary analyses of longitudinal data reveal a somewhat stronger association between this genetic marker and some aspects of episodic memory performance.
References
1998). A Continuity view of episodic memory impairment: Illustrations from Alzheimer disease and major depression. In C. von Euler, I. Lundberg, & R. Llinás (Eds.), Basic mechanisms in cognition and language (pp. 243-260). New York: Pergamon.
(1995). Recognition of familiar and unfamiliar melodies in normal aging and Alzheimer disease. Memory and Cognition , 23, 531– 546.
(1988). Thyroid disorders. In R.E. Tarter, D.H. van Thiel, & K.L. Edwards (Eds.), Medical neuropsychology: The impact of disease on behavior (pp. 197-218). New York: Plenum.
(1988). Cancer. In R.E. Tarter, D.H. van Thiel, & K.L. Edwards (Eds.), Medical neuropsychology: The impact of disease on behavior (pp. 265-290). New York: Plenum.
(1994). Cerebral function in diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia , 37, 643– 650.
(1990). Vitamin deficiency and mental symptoms. British Journal of Psychiatry , 156, 878– 882.
(1992). Multivariate genetic analyses of specific cognitive abilities in the Colorado Adoption Project at age 7. Intelligence , 16, 383– 400.
(1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 11, 671– 684.
(1983). Association between nutritional status and cognitive functioning in a healthy elderly population. Journal of the American Medical Association , 249, 2917– 2921.
(1995). Stroke prevention. Archives of Neurology , 52, 347– 355.
(1999). Further evidence for the effects of vitamin B12 and folate status on episodic memory functioning: A population based study of very old adults. Biological Psychiatry , 45, 1472– 1480.
(1995). The association of apolipoprotein E polymorphism with memory: A population based study. Neuroscience Letters , 191, 141– 144.
(1996). Memory functions in human subjects with different apolipoprotein E phenotypes during a 3-year population-based follow-up study. Neuroscience Letters , 204, 177– 180.
(1997). Gender differences in episodic memory. Memory and Cognition , 25, 801– 811.
(1996). Apolipoprotein E and cognitive change in an elderly population. Annals of Neurology , 40, 55– 66.
(1993). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: An original model of cognitive decline. American Review of Respiratory Disease , 148, 418– 424.
(1989). Folate, vitamin B-12, and life course of depressive illness. Biological Psychiatry , 25, 867– 872.
(1994). Uremic encephalopathy. Clinical Nephrology , 42, 251– 256.
(2001). The role of apolipoprotein E for memory function in nondemented and demented persons: A population-based study . Manuscript in preparation.
(1997). The Betula prospective cohort study: Memory, health, and aging. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition , 1, 1– 32.
(Memory development in adulthood and old age: The Betula prospective cohort study. In P. Graf & Nobuo Ohta (Eds.), Lifespan development of human memory. Cambridge: MIT Press.
(in press)1996). Genetic markers with high versus low scoring on episodic memory tasks. Behavior Genetics , 26, 555– 562.
(2000). Can the brain tell the difference between old and new?. In E. Tulving (Ed.), Memory, consciousness, and the brain (pp. 293-306). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
(1996). Classifying human long-term memory: Evidence from converging dissociations. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 8, 163– 183.
(1998). The APOE ε4 allele is associated with decline on delayed recall performance in community-dwelling older adults. Journal of the American Geriatric Society , 46, 1493– 1498.
(1995). Apolipoprotein E status as a predictor of the development of Alzheimer disease in memory-impaired individuals. Journal of the American Medical Association , 273, 1274– 1278.
(1997). Current directions in behavioral genetics: Moving into the mainstream. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 6, 85– 85.
(1999). Genetics and general cognitive ability. Nature , 402, (Suppl) 25– 29.
(2000). DNA. Psychological Bulletin , 126, 806– 828.
(1986). A brief history of the influence of trace elements on brain function. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 43, 293– 298.
(1992). Understanding implicit memory: A cognitive neuroscience approach. American Psychologist , 47, 559– 569.
(1994). What are the memory systems of 1994?. In D.L. Schacter, & E. Tulving (Eds.), Memory systems 1994 (pp. 1-38). Cambridge: MIT Press.
(1997). Astrocytes and microglia respond to estrogen with increased apoE mRNA in vivo and in vitro . Experimental Neurology , 143, 313– 318.
(1998). Increased synaptic sprouting in response to estrogen via an apolipoprotein E-dependent mechanism: Implications for Alzheimer disease. Journal of Neuroscience , 18, 3180– 3185.
(1985). Vitamin B-12-folate interrelationships. Annual Review of Nutrition , 5, 115– 141.
(1994). Risk factors for vascular dementia: A review. Dementia , 5, 137– 144.
(1992). Senile hypertension and cognitive impairment: An overview. Journal of Hypertension , 10, (Suppl.) S31– S42.
(1997). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Effects of hypoxia on neurological and neuropsychological measures. Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology , 19, 515– 524.
(1988). Perspective and rationale for neuropsychological assessment of medical disease. In R.E. Tarter, D.H. van Thiel, & K.L. Edwards (Eds.), Medical neuropsychology: The impact of disease on behavior (pp. 1-10). New York: Plenum.
(1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving, & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 382-403). New York: Academic Press.
(1983). Elements of episodic memory . Oxford: Clarendon.
(1987). Multiple memory systems and consciousness. Human Neurobiology , 6, 67– 80.
(1991). Concepts of human memory. In L.R. Squire, N.M. Weinberg, G. Lynch, & J.L. McGaugh (Eds.), Organization and locus of change (pp. 3-32). New York: Oxford University Press.
(1990). The mental efficiency of the elderly person with Type II diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 38, 505– 510.
(1996). Effects of serum vitamin B12 and folate status on episodic memory performance in very old age: A population based study. Psychology and Aging , 11, 487– 496.
(1995). Hypertension and neuropsychological function: A lifetime perspective. Experimental Aging Research , 21, 321– 352.
(1983). Forms of memory failure. Science , 221, 380– 382.
(1986). Automatic and effort-demanding processing in depression. In L.E. Poon (Ed.), Clinical memory assessment of older adults (pp. 218-225). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
(1990). Glycemic control and neuropsychologic function during hypoglycemia in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Annals of Internal Medicine , 112, 904– 912.
(