Conducting Event-Related Potential (ERP) Research With Young Children
A Review of Components, Special Considerations, and Recommendations for Research on Cognition and Emotion
Abstract
Abstract. There has been an unprecedented increase in the number of research studies employing event-related potential (ERP) techniques to examine dynamic and rapidly occurring neural processes with children during the preschool and early childhood years. Despite this, there has been relatively little discussion of the methodological and procedural differences that exist for studies of young children versus older children and adults. That is, reviewers, editors, and consumers of this work often expect developmental studies to simply apply adult techniques and procedures to younger samples. Procedurally, this creates unrealistic expectations for research paradigms, data collection, and data reduction and analyses. Scientifically, this leads to inappropriate measures and methods that hinder drawing conclusions and advancing theory. Based on ERP work with preschoolers and young children from 10 laboratories across North America, we present a summary of the most common ERP components under study in the area of emotion and cognition in young children along with 13 realistic expectations for data collection and loss, laboratory procedures and paradigms, data processing, ERP averaging, and typical challenges for conducting this type of work. This work is intended to supplement previous guidelines for work with adults and offer insights to aid researchers, reviewers, and editors in the design and evaluation of developmental research using ERPs. Here we make recommendations for researchers who plan to conduct or who are conducting ERP studies in children between ages 2 and 12 years, focusing on studies of toddlers and preschoolers. Recommendations are based on both data and our cumulative experience and include guidelines for laboratory setup, equipment and recording settings, task design, and data processing.
References
(2005). Strategic control and medial frontal negativity: Beyond errors and response conflict. Psychophysiology, 42, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00258.x
(2016). Neural correlates of reward processing in depressed and healthy preschool-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55, 1081–1089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.09.503
(2012). Using EEG to study cognitive development: Issues and practices. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13, 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2012.691143
(2008).
The use of the electroencephalogram in research on cognitive development . In L. A. SchmidtS. J. SegalowitzEds., Developmental psychophysiology (pp. 150–170). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.(2001). Further evidence of association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1673–1679. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1673
(2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108, 624–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.624
(2018). Maternal behavior and socioeconomic status predict longitudinal changes in error-related negativity in preschoolers. Child Development, 89, 725–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13066
(2014). Toddler fearfulness is linked to individual differences in error-related negativity during preschool. Developmental Neuropsychology, 39, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2013.826661
(2011). Error-monitoring brain activity is associated with affective behaviors in young children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.002
(1983). Exponential electrophysiological aging: P3 latency. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 55, 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(83)90205-5
(2012).
Event-related brain potentials in depression: Clinical, cognitive, and neurophysiological implications . In S. J. LuckE. S. KappenmanEds., The Oxford handbook of event-related potential components (pp. 563–592). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.(2007). Error-related event-related potentials in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, reading disorder, and math disorder. Biological Psychology, 75, 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.12.003
(2011). An ERP study of conflict monitoring in 4–8-year old children: Associations with temperament. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.003
(2017). Development of the error-monitoring system from ages 9–35: Unique insight provided by MRI-constrained source localization of EEG. NeuroImage, 157, 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.05.045
(1993). If attitudes affect how stimuli are processed, should they not affect the event-related brain potential? Psychological Science, 4, 108–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00470.x
(2017). ERN, theta power, and risk for anxiety problems in preschoolers. Biological Psychiatry, 123, 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.12.003
(2009). Stable early maternal report of behavioral inhibition predicts lifetime social anxiety disorder in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 928–935. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181ae09df
(2013). Psychometric properties of conflict monitoring and conflict adaptation indices: Response time and conflict N2 event-related potentials. Psychophysiology, 50, 1209–1219. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12138
(2006). The categorization of natural scenes: Brain attention networks revealed by dense sensor ERPs. NeuroImage, 32, 583–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.04.180
(1997). On the number of trials needed for P300. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 25, 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8760(96)00743-X
(2018). Frontal theta activation associated with error detection in toddlers: Influence of familial socioeconomic status. Developmental Science, 21, 1–10. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1111/desc.12494
(2011). The developing brain: From theory to neuroimaging and back. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.001
(2000). Brain potentials in affective picture processing: Covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report. Biological Psychology, 52, 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(99)00044-7
(1995). Abstracts of Papers to be Presented at the Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Society for Psychophysiological Research. Psychophysiology, 32, S26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb02379.x
(2004). Development of response-monitoring ERPs in 7- to 25-year-olds. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 355–376. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2503_6
(2006). Neural correlates of impulsive responding in borderline personality disorder: ERP evidence for reduced action monitoring. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40, 428–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.09.004
(2007).
Methods for acquiring and analyzing infant event-related potentials . In M. DeHaanEd., Infant EEG and event-related potentials (pp. 5–38). New York, NY: Psychology Press.(2014). The late positive potential as a neural signature for cognitive reappraisal in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 39, 497–515. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2014.959171
(2012). Neural correlates of cognitive reappraisal in children: An ERP study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.05.009
(2015). Associations between parental ideology and neural sensitivity to cognitive conflict in children. Social Neuroscience, 10, 206–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2014.968290
(2009). Trait anxiety and conflict monitoring following threat: An ERP study. Psychophysiology, 46, 122–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00758.x
(2009). The late positive potential: A neurophysiological marker for emotion regulation in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1373–1383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02168.x
(1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633–652.
(2005).
Principal components analysis of ERP data . In T. C. HandyEd., Event-related potentials: A methods handbook (pp. 189–208). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.(1981). Surprise!… Surprise? Psychophysiology, 18, 493–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1981.tb01815.x
(2015). Implications of ongoing neural development for the measurement of the error-related negativity in childhood. Developmental Science, 18, 452–468. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12229
(2002). A neural basis for the development of inhibitory control. Developmental Science, 5, F9–F16. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00235
(1991). Effects of crossmodal divided attention on late ERP components. II. Error processing in choice reaction tasks. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 78, 447–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(91)90062-9
(1999). ERP components in Go/Nogo tasks and their relation to inhibition. Acta Psychologica, 101, 267–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-6918(99)00008-6
(1985). Stages and individual differences in cognitive development. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 613–648. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.36.020185.003145
(2009). Differentiating neural responses to emotional pictures: Evidence from temporal-spatial PCA. Psychophysiology, 46, 521–530.
(1987). Expression of separation anxiety disorder: The roles of age and gender. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 18, 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00709952
(2015). How does reactivity to frustrative non-reward increase risk for externalizing symptoms? Psychophysiological Science and the Research Domain Criteria, 98, 300–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.018
(2012).
The error-related negativity (ERN/Ne) . In S. J. LuckE. S. KappenmanEds., The Oxford handbook of event-related potential components (pp. 231–291). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.(1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861–863.
(1982).
Toward a theory of infant temperament . In R. N. EmdeR. J. HarmonEds., The development of attachment and affiliative systems (pp. 161–193). New York, NY: Plenum.(2012). Abnormal centroparietal ERP response in predominantly medication-naive adolescent boys with ADHD during both response inhibition and execution. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 29, 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNP.0b013e31824e1025
(2014). Age-related changes in error processing in young children: A school-based investigation. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2014.02.001
(2009). ERP correlates of attention allocation in mothers processing faces of their children. Biological Psychology, 81, 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.03.001
(2009). Brain potentials during affective picture processing in children. Biological Psychology, 80, 333–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.11.006
(2007). Neural response to emotional pictures is unaffected by concurrent task difficulty: An event-related potential study. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121, 1156–1162. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.121.6.1156
(2008). Errors are aversive: Defensive motivation and the error-related negativity. Psychological Science, 19, 103–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02053.x
(2003). Anxiety and error-related brain activity. Biological Psychology, 64, 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(03)00103-0
(2006). Attending to affect: Appraisal strategies modulate the electrocortical response to arousing pictures. Emotion, 6, 517–522. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.517
(2008). The persistence of attention to emotion: Brain potentials during and after picture presentation. Emotion, 82, 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.250
(2012).
ERPs and the study of emotion . In S. J. LuckE. S. KappenmanEds., The Oxford handbook of event-related potential components (pp. 441–472). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.(2013). A lifespan comparison of the reliability, test-retest stability, and signal-to-noise ratio of event-related potentials assessed during performance monitoring. Psychophysiology, 50, 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01476.x
(1999). Developmental delay in P300 production in children at high risk for developing alcohol-related disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 970–981. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00032-3
(2012). Recording infant ERP data for cognitive research. Developmental Neuropsychology, 37, 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2011.627958
(2002). The neural basis of human error processing: Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. Psychological Review, 109, 679–709. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.4.679
(2017). Changes in the NoGo N2 event-related potential component across childhood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Developmental Neuropsychology, 42, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2016.1247162
(2015). Less efficient neural processing related to irregular sleep and less sustained attention in toddlers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 40, 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2015.1016162
(2016). An ERP source imaging study of the oddball task in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Neurophysiology, 127, 1351–1357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2015.10.051
(2007). Methylphenidate improves deficient error evaluation in children with ADHD: An event-related brain potential study. Biological Psychology, 76, 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.08.004
(2014). Committee report: Publication guidelines and recommendations for studies using electroencephalography and magnetoencephalography. Psychophysiology, 51, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12147
(2013). Neurophysiological processing of emotion and parenting interact to predict inhibited behavior: An affective-motivational framework. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 326.
(1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199–214.
(2008). Modulations of the electrophysiological response to pleasant stimuli by cognitive reappraisal. Emotion, 8, 132–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.1.132
(2012). Electrocortical reactivity to emotional faces in young children and associations with maternal and paternal depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02461.x
(2012). Electrocortical reactivity to emotional images and faces in middle childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 458–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2012.03.005
(2013). Differentiating event-related potential components sensitive to emotion in middle childhood: Evidence from temporal-spatial PCA. Developmental Psychobiology, 55, 539–550. https://doi.org/10.002/dev.21058
(2006). Increased error‐related negativity (ERN) in childhood anxiety disorders: ERP and source localization. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1073–1082. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01654.x
(1989). P300 and probability in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48, 212–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(89)90003-9
(2010). Developmental change in the neurophysiological correlates of self-regulation in high- and low-emotion conditions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 35, 156–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640903526512
(2014). Cognitive control moderates early childhood temperament in predicting social behavior in 7-year-old children: an ERP study. Developmental Science, 17, 667–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12158
(2006). Neural correlates of cognitive control in childhood and adolescence: Disentangling the contributions of age and executive function. Advances in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 44, 2139–2148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.013
(2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Methodological and Conceptual Advances in the Study of Brain-Behavior Dynamics: A Multivariate Lifespan Perspective, 30, 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001
(2006). Behavioral differences in aggressive children linked with neural mechanisms of emotion regulation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1376.017
(2006). Neurophysiological correlates of emotion regulation in children and adolescents. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 430–443.
(2004). Emotion regulation in the brain: Conceptual issues and directions for developmental research. Child Development, 75, 371–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00680.x
(2019). Integrating high-density ERP and fMRI measures of face-elicited brain activity in 9–12-year-old children: An ERP source localization study. NeuroImage, 184, 599–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.09.070
(2016). Associations between disorder-specific symptoms of anxiety and error-monitoring brain activity in young children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1439–1488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0247-4
(2015). Neurophysiological evidence of an association between cognitive control and defensive reactivity processes in young children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.09.001
(2005). An Introduction to the event-related potential technique. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
(2014). An introduction to the event-related potential technique (Second). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
(2017). How to get statistically significant effects in any ERP experiment (and why you shouldn’t). Psychophysiology, 54, 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12639
(2009). Tell me about it: Neural activity elicited by emotional pictures and preceding descriptions. Emotion, 9, 531–543. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016251
(2010). Distinct electrocortical and behavioral evidence for increased attention to threat in generalized anxiety disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20679
(2010). Does combing the scalp reduce scalp electrode impedances? Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 188, 287–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.02.024
(2002). Development of the EEG from 5 months to 4 years of age. Clinical Neurophysiology, 113, 1199–1208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00163-3
(1981). A metric for thought: A comparison of P300 latency and reaction time. Science, 211, 77. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7444452
(2009). A history of childhood behavioral inhibition and enhanced response monitoring in adolescence are linked to clinical anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 445–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.043
(2014). Psychometric properties of the error-related negativity in children and adolescents. Psychophysiology, 51, 602–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12208
(2013). Increased error-related brain activity in six-year-old children with clinical anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1257–1266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9762-8
(2015). Enhanced error-related brain activity in children predicts the onset of anxiety disorders between the ages of 6 and 9. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000044
(2018). Early temperamental fearfulness and the developmental trajectory of error‐related brain activity. Developmental Psychobiology, 60, 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21605
(2012). The development of the error-related negativity (ERN) and its relationship with anxiety: Evidence from 8 to 13 year-olds. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.005
(2013). The psychometric properties of the late positive potential during emotion processing and regulation. Brain Research, 1516, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2013.04.018
(2012). Sex moderates the relationship between worry and performance monitoring brain activity in undergraduates. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 85, 188–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.05.005
(2013). On the relationship between anxiety and error monitoring: A meta-analysis and conceptual framework. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 1–19.
(2006). Intentional modulation of emotional responding to unpleasant pictures: An ERP study. Psychophysiology, 43, 292–296.
(2008). Face processing biases in social anxiety: An electrophysiological study. Biological Psychology, 78, 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.01.005
(2009). Electrophysiological correlates of decreasing and increasing emotional responses to unpleasant pictures. Psychophysiology, 46, 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00721.x
(2012). Parsing relationships between dimensions of anxiety and action monitoring brain potentials in female undergraduates. Psychophysiology, 49, 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01279.x
(2012). Approach-related left prefrontal EEG asymmetry predicts muted error-related negativity. Biological Psychology, 91, 96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.05.005
(2005).
The normal EEG of the waking adult . In E. NiedermeyerF. H. Lopes da SilvaEds., Electroencephalography: Basic principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields (5th ed., pp. 167–192). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.(2003). Electrophysiological correlates of anterior cingulate function in a go/no-go task: Effects of response conflict and trial type frequency. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 17–26. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.3.1.17
(2007). Affective visual event-related potentials: Arousal, repetition, and time-on-task. Biological Psychology, 75, 101–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.12.006
(2009a). The effect of trial-to-trial feedback on the error-related negativity and its relationship with anxiety. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 427–433. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.9.4.427
(2009b). The stability of error‐related brain activity with increasing trials. Psychophysiology, 46, 957–961. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00848.x
(2013). The N170 to angry faces predicts anxiety in typically developing children over a two-year period. Developmental Neuropsychology, 38, 352–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2013.802321
(1998). Associations between event-related potentials and measures of attention and inhibition in the continuous performance task in children with ADHD and normal controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 977–985. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199809000-00018
(2016). Measuring the development of inhibitory control: The challenge of heterotypic continuity. Developmental Review, 40, 25–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.02.001
(2000). Guidelines for using human event-related potentials to study cognition: Recording standards and publication criteria. Psychophysiology, 37, 127–152.
(2003).
Theoretical Overview of P3a and P3b . In J. PolichEd., Detection of change: Event-related potential and fMRI findings (pp. 83–98). Boston, MA: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0294-4_5(2007). Updating P300: An integrative theory of P3a and P3b. Clinical Neurophysiology, 118, 2128–2148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2007.04.019
(1995). Cognitive and biological determinants of P300: An integrative review. Biological Psychology, 41, 103–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-0511(95)05130-9
(1990). Normal variation of P300 in children: Age, memory span, and head size. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 9, 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8760(90)90056-J
(2010). On the number of trials necessary for stabilization of error‐related brain activity across the life span. Psychophysiology, 47, 767–773. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.00974.x
(2006). Reduced punishment sensitivity in neural systems of behavior monitoring in impulsive individuals. Neuroscience Letters, 397, 130–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2005.12.003
(2014). Internal consistency of event-related potentials associated with cognitive control: N2/P3 and ERN/Pe. PLoS One, 9, e102672. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102672
(2006). Error-related electrocortical responses are enhanced in children with obsessive-compulsive behaviors. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 431–445. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2903_3
Schmidt, L. A.Segalowitz, S. J. (Eds.) (2008). Developmental psychophysiology: Theory, systems, and methods. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
(2003). Attention and emotion: An ERP analysis of facilitated emotional stimulus processing. NeuroReport, 14, 1107–1110.
(2004). Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy. Development of Orbitofrontal Function, 55, 116–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00283-5
(2005). Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence of a right hemisphere bias for the influence of negative emotion on higher cognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 518–529. https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929053279504
(2004). Inhibitory processing during the go/no-go task: An ERP analysis of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115, 1320–1331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2003.12.027
(2012). Emotional picture processing in children: An ERP study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.04.002
(2014). Negative affectivity and EEG asymmetry interact to predict emotional interference on attention in early school-aged children. Brain and Cognition, 87, 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2014.03.014
(2007). Neurophysiological mechanisms of emotion regulation for subtypes of externalizing children. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 455–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407070228
(1965). Evoked-potential correlates of stimulus uncertainty. Science, 150, 1187. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3700.1187
(2019). Neurodevelopmental differences to social exclusion: An event-related neural oscillation study of children, adolescents, and adults. Emotion, 19, 250–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000456
(2016). The test–retest reliability of the visually evoked contingent negative variation (CNV) in children and adults. Developmental Neuropsychology, 41, 162–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2016.1170835
(1995). A psychometric perspective on psychological measures. Psychological Assessment, 7, 387–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.387
(2013). Error-related brain activity in young children: Associations with parental anxiety and child temperamental negative emotionality. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 854–862. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12041
(2009). An examination of error-related brain activity and its modulation by error value in young children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 34, 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640903265103
(2002). The timing of action-monitoring processes in the anterior cingulate cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 593–602. https://doi.org/10.1162/08989290260045837
(2006). Conflict and cognitive control in the brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 237–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00443.x
(2000). Is the “error negativity” specific to errors? Biological Psychology, 51, 109–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(99)00032-0
(2007). Developmental changes in error monitoring: An event-related potential study. Neuropsychologia, 45, 1649–1657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.01.004
(2015). Relevance of a neurophysiological marker of attention allocation for children’s learning-related behaviors and academic performance. Developmental Psychology, 51, 1148–1162. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039311
(2011). Neural changes associated with treatment outcome in children with externalizing problems. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 873–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.05.029
