European Roots of the First Psychology Clinic in North America
Abstract
Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) founded the first psychology clinic in Philadelphia 100 years ago, in March 1896. Even though he was an American, he readily acknowledged some European roots of his work. Witmer earned his Ph.D. at the University of Leipzig, Germany, under Wilhelm Wundt. He was encouraged by his Philadelphia mentor, James McKeen Cattell, to focus on individual differences in the tradition of Francis Galton of England. Witmer modeled his clinical interventions after the previous efforts of J.R. Pereira, J.M.G. Itard, and Edouard Seguin of France and Maria Montessori of Italy. The consequences for modern psychology of Witmer's idea that psychologists should use their knowledge to help people individually were noteworthy. Clinical psychology is today the most common psychology specialty in Europe and, indeed, in much of the world. However, Witmer's concept that clinical psychologists should be trained at the doctoral level is as yet far better accepted in North America than it is elsewhere.
References
Ardila, R. (1982). International psychology. American Psychologist, 37, 323– 329 1982-29234-001Ash, M.G. (1980). Academic politics in the history of science: Experimental psychology in Germany, 1879-1941. Central European History, 13, 255– 286Binet, A. , Simon, T. (1905). [On the necessity of establishing a scientific diagnosis of an inferior state of intelligence.]. L'Année psychologique, 11, 163– 190Brengelmann, J.C. , Wittchen, H.-U. (1986). Professional psychology and private health services: Developing trends in the Federal Republic of Germany. American Psychologist, 41, 306– 308 1986-20573-001Breuer, J. , Freud, S. (1895/1955). Studies in hysteria. In J. Strachey (Ed. and trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 2. London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis1982). Training in clinical psychology: A statement of policy. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 35, 153– 155
(Cattell, J. M. (1890). Mental tests and measurements. Mind, 15, 373– 381Conway, J. B. (1984). Clinical psychology training in Canada: Its development, current status, and the prospects for accreditation. Canadian Psychology, 25, 177– 191 1985-10567-001Cullen, C. (1988). Doctoral degree in applied psychology. The Psychologist, 1, 395– 396Fagan, T. K. (1992). Compulsory schooling, child study, clinical psychology, and special education: Origins of school psychology. American Psychologist, 47, 236– 243 1992-25090-001Feuerstein, R. (1979). The dynamic assessment of retarded performers: The Learning Potential Assessment Device . Baltimore: University Park PressFeuerstein, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment: An intervention program for cognitive modifiability . Baltimore: University Park PressHaywood, H. C. , Tzuriel, D. (1992). Interactive assessment . New York: Springer-VerlagItard, J. M. ..& (1801/1962).G. Humphrey, M. Humphrey (trans.). The wild boy of Aveyron. New York: Appleton-Century-CroftsKowalski, R. (1981). Clinical psychology in West Germany. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 34, 172– 173Kraepelin, E. (1896). Der psychologische Versuch in der Psychiatrie . (The psychological experiment in psychiatry). Cited in J. Groebel (1992). Germany. In V. S. Sexton & J. D. Hogan (Eds.), International psychology: Views from around the world . Lincoln: University of Nebraska PressMcPherson, F. M. (1986). The professional psychologist in Europe. American Psychologist, 41, 302– 305 1986-20607-001McPherson, F. M. Clinical psychology training in Europe. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 419– 428 1993-27249-001McReynolds, P. (1987). Lightner Witmer: Little-known founder of clinical psychology. American Psychologist, 42, 849– 858 1988-03153-001Pawlik, K. (1994). Psychology in Europe: Origins and development of psychology in German-speaking countries. International Journal of Psychology, 29, 677– 694 1995-27556-001Prieto, J. M. , Fernández-Ballesteros, R. , Carpintero, H. (1994). Contemporary psychology in Spain. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 51– 78 1994-31831-001Rosenzweig, M. R. (1992). Resources for psychological science around the world. In M. R. Rosenzweig (Ed.), International psychological science: Progress, problems, and prospects (pp. 17-74). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (Published under the auspices of the International Union of Psychological Science)Routh, D. K. (1994). Clinical psychology since 1917: Science, practice, and organization . New York: Plenum PressSanches, A. A. (1992). France. In V. S. Sexton & J.D. Hogan (Eds.), International psychology: Views from around the world (pp. 136-148). Lincoln: University of Nebraska PressSeguin, E. (1866). Idiocy and its treatment by the physiological method . (rev. ed.). New York: W. WoodSexton, V. S. , Hogan, J. D. (1992). Epilogue. In V. S. Sexton, & J. D. Hogan (Eds.), International psychology: Views from around the world . (pp. 467-477). Lincoln: University of Nebraska PressWebster, E. C. (1967). The Couchiching conference on professional psychology . Montreal: Canadian Psychological AssociationWitmer, L. (1897). The organization of practical work in psychology. Psychological Review, 4, 116– 117 Abstract of a talk given December 29, 1896 at the Boston/Cambridge meeting of the American Psychological AssociationWitmer, L. (1907a). Clinical psychology. The Psychological Clinic: A Journal for the Study and Treatment of Mental Retardation and Deviation, 1, 1– 9Witmer, L. (1907b). A case of chronic bad spelling: Amnesia visualis verbalis, due to arrest of post-natal development. Psychological Clinic, 1, 53– 64