Abstract
Abstract. Optimizing majority world youths’ capacity for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals is an essential endeavor for psychology, yet African adolescents are rarely represented in psychology research. In this paper, we explore positive youth development (PYD) among Maasai adolescents, amid rapidly changing sociocultural and environmental circumstances in Northern Tanzania. Three methods were selected to elicit perspectives of three participant groups from varied living contexts. Method 1 used standardized PYD measures, a top-down approach, to assess and compare self-efficacy, developmental assets, ethnic identity, and environmental connection among school-attending Maasai (n = 80) and non-Maasai adolescents (n = 60). Method 2 used participatory activities with school-attending Maasai females (n = 16) to illuminate challenges and necessary assets from a girls’ perspective. Method 3 used photovoice to capture perspectives from community-based adolescents (n = 12) using photographic images and discussion. Survey results showed Maasai participants were thriving compared to others, with strong overall assets, commitment to education and culture, and connection with the environment. School-based girls expressed gender-related challenges along with the need for strengths such as confidence, hard work, education, and bodily autonomy. Community participants produced photographs illustrating a major shift in livelihoods from cattle grazing to cultivation and permanent housing, along with strengths such as working together and sustainable husbandry. Through diverse methods, we gained unique perspectives regarding Maasai adolescents’ contemporary context revealing spirited and flexible pathways toward achieving optimum development for themselves and their communities.
Impact and Implications.
Through mixed methods research, including standard surveys, participatory games, and photography, we gained unique perspectives regarding Maasai adolescents’ contemporary context and their spirited and flexible paths toward optimum youth development. Results reiterate the application of a positive youth development (PYD) approach to adolescent psychology research and as a path to attaining personal and community well-being.
References
(1999). Marginalization of the Maasai in Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(3), 716–718. 10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00027-4
(2002). The Maasai image and the development of tourism in Kenya. In J. S. AkamaP. Sterry (Eds.), Cultural Tourism in Africa: Strategies for the new millennium (pp. 43–54). Tilburg University: Association for Tourism and Leisure Education.
(2017). A systematic review of positive youth development in low- and middle-income countries. Youth Power Learning, Making Cents International. http://www.youthpower.org/systematic-review-pyd-lmics
(2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63(7), 602–614. 10.1037/0003-066x.63.7.602
(2012). Adolescent psychology around the world. Psychology Press.
(2013). Legitimizing local perspectives in conservation through community-based research: A photovoice study in Samburu, Kenya. Society & Natural Resources, 26(12), 1390–1406. 10.1080/08941920.2013.805858
(2010). The use of photo-elicitation in field research: Exploring Maasai representations and use of natural resources. EchoGéo, 11. 10.4000/echogeo.11622.
(2005). Most people are pretty happy, but there is cultural variation: The Inughuit, the Amish, and the Maasai. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6(3), 205–226. 10.1007/s10902-005-5683-8
(1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1(3), 185–216. 10.1177/135910457000100301
(1999). Life paths into effective environmental action. The Journal of Environmental Education, 31(1), 15–26. 10.1080/00958969909598628
(2019). How might indigenous, traditional, ecological knowledge inform ecopsychology? Ecopsychology, 3(1), 156–161. 10.1089/eco.2019.0005
(2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, & mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
(2004). From Mukogodo to Maasai: Ethnicity and cultural change in Kenya. Westview Press.
(2015). Seeing with our own eyes: Youth in Mathare, Kenya use photovoice to examine individual and community strengths. Qualitative Social Work, 14(2), 170–192. 10.1177/1473325014526085
(2004). What is positive youth development? The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 13–24. 10.1177/0002716203260092
(2008). Psychometric properties of multigroup ethnic identity measure (MEIM) scores with Australian adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups. Journal of Adolescence, 31(3), 323–335. 10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.06.003
(2019). From surviving to thriving: Characterizing positive youth development among youth in Ethiopia. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 200–209. 10.1080/02673843.2019.1608272
(1987). Cry babies, culture, and catastrophe: Infant temperament among the Masai. In N. Scheper-Hughes (Ed.), Child survival. Culture, illness and healing (Vol. 11, pp. 165–185). Springer. 10.1007/978-94-009-3393-4_9
(2017). Protective factors and resilience in adolescents: The mediating role of self-regulation. Psicología Educativa, 23(1), 37–43. 10.1016/j.pse.2016.09.003
(2012). Exploring developmental assets in Ugandan youth. International Journal of Children, Youth, and Family Studies, 4(1), 500–520. 10.18357/ijcyfs34.1201211557
(2018). A developmental assets approach in East Africa: Can Swahili measures capture adolescent competencies and ecological experiences? Child and Youth Care Forum, 47(1), 22–43. 10.1007/s10566-017-9415-0
(2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83. 10.2139/ssrn.160178510.1017/s0140525x0999152x
(2012). Focus groups and methodological rigour outside the minority world: Making the method work to its strengths in Tanzania. Qualitative Research, 12(2), 111–130. 10.1177/1468794111416145
(2019). Assessing assets among street-connected youth: New angles with participatory methods in Tanzania. Journal of Adolescent Research, 34(5), 619–651. 10.1177/0743558418822334
(in press). Intervention: Enhancing mental health and wellbeing around the world. In M. BullockC. Sheeley (Eds.), Going global: Psychologists meeting a world of need. American Psychological Association.
(2018). Predicting civic competencies among East African youth and emerging adults: Report on the General Self Efficacy Scale. Emerging Adulthood. Sage. 10.1177/2167696818768083
(2013). Cultivating youth's capacity to address climate change in Uganda. International Perspectives in Psychology, 2(1), 29–44. 10.1037/a0031053
(2012). Ethnic identity, self-efficacy, and intercultural attitudes in East African and U.S. youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 27(2), 256–289. 10.1177/0743558411412955
(2014). Students and scientists connect with nature in Uganda, East Africa. International Journal of Research in Science Education, 9, 311–327. 10.12973/ijese.2014.217a
(2010). Connecting with nature and caring for others: An eco-psychological perspective on positive youth development. ReVision: A Journal of Consciousness and Transformation, 31, 78–84.
(2014). Towards inclusivity, adaptation, and collective action in Ecopsychology: Lessons from East Africa. Invited essay. Ecopsychology, 5(4), 233–236. 10.1089/eco.2013.0095
(2013). The health and wellbeing of young people in sub-Saharan Africa: An under-researched area? BMC International Health and Human Rights, 13, Article
11 . http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-698X/13/1110.1186/1472-698x-13-11(2002). Children’s affiliations with nature: Structure, development, and the problem of environmental generational amnesia. In P. H. Kahn Jr.S. R. Kellert (Eds.), Children and nature: Psychological, sociocultural, and evolutionary investigations (pp. 93–116). MIT Press.
(2006). Adolescent development in East Asia and the Pacific: Realizing their potential Adolescent Development and Program Division. Learning Series 2. United National Children Fund.
(2013). Maasai identity in the 21st century [Theses and Dissertations]. Paper No. 715. 10.1037/e642402011-001
(2009). Globalization, society change, and adolescence across the world. In R. M. LernerL. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (Vol. 2). Wiley. 10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy002018
(2005). Positive youth development A view of the issues. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 10–16. 10.1177/0272431604273211
(2003). Positive youth development: Thriving as the basis of personhood and civil society. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 172–180. 10.1207/s1532480xads0703_8
(2012). Youth bulge: A demographic dividend or a demographic bomb in developing countries? World Bank blogs. http://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/youth-bulge-a-demographic-dividend-or-a-demographic-bomb-in-developing-countries
(2010). Last child in the woods. Atlantic Books.
. (2019a). General information: Maasai people. www.maasai-assocation.org/maasai.html
. (2019b). Maasai rituals and ceremonies. http://www.maasai-association.org/ceremonies.html
(1992). Can conservation and development be coupled among pastoral people? An examination of the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Human Organization, 51(4), 353–366. 10.17730/humo.51.4.d20010q600v50240
(2008). Securing access to drylands resources for multiple users in Africa. Land Use Policy, 25(2), 240–248. 10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.07.002
(1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Sage.
(2019). The evolution of positive youth development as a key international development approach. Global Society Welfare, 6(1), 5–15. 10.1007/s40609-018-0120-1
(2014). Using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory to frame quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 7(1), 2–8. org/10.5172/mra.2013.7.1.2
(1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and young adults from diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. 10.1177/074355489272003
(2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. 10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
(2009). The intersections of biological diversity and cultural diversity: Towards integration. Conservation and Society, 7(2), 100–112. 10.4103/0972-4923.58642
(2001). Analyzing cultural-psychological themes in narrative statements. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 2(3), 1–10. 10.17169/fqs-2.3.912
. (2016). Photovoice: A facilitators guide. https://www.rutgers.international/sites/rutgersorg/files/PDF/PhotoVoice_Manual_18042016.pdf
(1990). Maasai. Harry Abrams Inc, Abradale Press.
(2011). Youth developmental assets in global perspective: Results from international adaptations of the developmental assets profile. Child Indicators Research, 4(4), 619–645. 10.1007/s12187-011-9112-8
(2012). Do developmental assets make a difference in majority-world contexts? A preliminary study of the relationships between developmental assets and international development priorities. https://www.search-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/DoAssetsMatter-2012Report.pdf
(2017). Aligning youth development theory, measurement, and practice across cultures and contexts: Lessons from use of the developmental assets profile. Child Indicators Research, 10(4), 1145–1178. 10.1007/s12187-016-9395-x
(2020). Improving the use of focus group discussions in low income settings. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 20(1), Article
287 . 10.1186/s12874-020-01168-8(1995). General self-efficacy scale (GSE) [Database record]. APA PsycTests. 10.1037/t00393-000
. (2016). User guide for the developmental assets profile: Discovering what kids need to succeed.
(2004). Engaging youth through photovoice. Health Promotion Practice, 5(1), 49–58. 10.1177/1524839903258015
(2020). Towards cross-cultural environmental psychology: A state of the art- review and recommendations. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 71, Article
101474 . 10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101474.(2021). The neglected 95% revisited: Is American psychology becoming less American? American Psychologist, 76(1), 116–129. 10.1037/amp0000622
(2018). Cornered by protected areas: Replacing ‘fortress' conservation with rights-based approaches helps bring justice for indigenous peoples and local communities, reduces conflict, and enables cost-effective conservation and climate action Rights and Resources Initiative.
(2006). Ethnic identity formation during adolescence: The critical role of families. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 390–414. 10.1177/0192513x05282960
. (2021). Sustainable development goals. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://sdgs.un.org/goals
(2013). Contributions of internationalization to psychology: Toward a global and inclusive discipline. American Psychologist, 68(8), 761–770. 10.1037/a0033762
(2006). Youth participation in photovoice as a strategy for community change. Journal of Community Practice, 14(1), 147–161. 10.1300/J125v14n01_09
(1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health Education & Behavior, 24(3), 369–387. 10.1177/109019819702400309
(2001). Assessing the structure of environmental concern: Concern for the self, other people, and the biosphere. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(4), 327–339. 10.1006/jevp.2001.0227
(2017). A close-up look at what happens when tourists and Maasai communities meet. https://theconversation.com/a-close-up-look-at-what-happens-when-tourists-and-maasai-communities-meet-84095
(2006). Multigroup ethnic identity measure scores in a sample of adolescents from Zimbabwe. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 6(1), 35–59. 10.1207/s1532706xid0601_4
(2013). Mixing qualitative and quantitative research in developmental science: Uses and methodological choices. Qualitative Psychology, 1(S), 3–18. 10.1037/2326-3598.1.S.3
