Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Article

Associations of Police Officer Health Behaviors and Subjective Well-Being

The Role of Psychological Flexibility

Published Online:October 08, 2020https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000055

Abstract

Abstract.Background: Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are responsible for maintaining public order and safety within communities. As a consequence of this obligation, LEOs are repeatedly exposed to a myriad of unavoidable occupational stressors, known to affect health behaviors and well-being. Importantly, LEO well-being has public safety implications as those reporting higher well-being exhibit more equitable police behavior relative to those reporting lower well-being. Aims: The present study aimed to identify factors that may be leveraged to enhance LEO well-being by investigating the indirect relation of health behaviors to well-being through psychological flexibility. Method: Path-analytic regression models were used to analyze cross-sectional data provided by LEOs recruited from three geographically dispersed police agencies (N = 459; Male = 84.7%, White = 64.2%). Results: Results indicated psychological flexibility accounted for the relations of chronic pain and quality sleep to well-being. Regular exercise accounted for the largest proportion of well-being variance, though the indirect effect through psychological flexibility was not significant. Limitations: Inclusion of more comprehensive measures of well-being and health behaviors may further clarify the strength of relations reported herein. Conclusion: Enhancing flexible response styles may support high well-being in LEO populations who report poor sleep quality and chronic pain.

References

  • Åkerblom, S., Perrin, S., Rivano Fischer, M., & McCracken, L. M. (2018). The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain in people seeking treatment for chronic pain. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 34(6), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000561 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Armeli, S., Covault, J., & Tennen, H. (2018). Long-term changes in the effects of episode-specific drinking to cope motivation on daily well-being. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 32(7), 715–726. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000409 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Atkins, P. W., & Styles, R. G. (2016). Measuring self and rules in what people say: exploring whether self-discrimination predicts long-term wellbeing. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 5(2), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2016.05.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ballenger, J. F., Best, S. R., Metzler, T. J., Wasserman, D. A., Mohr, D. C., Liberman, A., Delucchi, K., Weiss, D. S., Fagan, J. A., Waldrop, A. E., & Marmar, C. R. (2011). Patterns and predictors of alcohol use in male and female urban police officers. The American Journal on Addictions, 20(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00092.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Berghoff, C. R., Forsyth, J. P., Ritzert, T. R., Eifert, G. H., & Anderson, D. A. (2018). Evaluation of the contribution of values clarification to a brief mindfulness meditation intervention for anxiety. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(9), 1387–1402. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22610 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Berghoff, C. R., McDermott, M. J., & Dixon-Gordon, K. L. (2018). Psychological flexibility moderates the relation between PTSD symptoms and daily pain interference. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 130–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Berghoff, C. R., Ritzert, T. R., & Forsyth, J. P. (2018c). Value-guided action: Within-day and lagged relations of experiential avoidance, mindful awareness, and cognitive fusion in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 10, 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.07.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bernstein, E. E., & McNally, R. J. (2017). Acute aerobic exercise helps overcome emotion regulation deficits. Cognition and Emotion, 31(4), 834–843. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1168284 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bernstein, E. E., & McNally, R. J. (2018). Exercise as a buffer against difficulties with emotion regulation: A pathway to emotional wellbeing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 109, 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2018.07.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Biron, M., & Van Veldhoven, M. (2012). Emotional labour in service work: Psychological flexibility and emotion regulation. Human Relations, 65(10), 1259–1282. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726712447832 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bond, F. W., & Flaxman, P. E. (2006). The ability of psychological flexibility and job control to predict learning, job performance, and mental health. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 26(2), 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1300/J075v26n01_05 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Baer, R. A., Carpenter, K. M., Guenole, N., Orcutt, H. K., Waltz, T., & Zettle, R. D. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire – II: A revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.03.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bond, J., Sarkisian, K., Charles, L. E., Hartley, T. A., Andrew, M. E., Violanti, J. M., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2013). Association of traumatic police event exposure with sleep quality and quantity in the BCOPS study cohort. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 15(4), 255–265. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Brown, J. J., Wells, G. A., Trottier, A. J., Bonneau, J., & Ferris, B. (1998). Back pain in a large Canadian police force. Spine, 23(7), 821–827. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-199804010-00017 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Brown, J. M., & Campbell, E. A. (1990). Sources of occupational stress in the police. Work & Stress, 4(4), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678379008256993 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Campbell, S. M. (2007). Hydration needs throughout the lifespan. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 26(5), 585–587. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2007.10719662 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Carleton, R. N., Afifi, T. O., Turner, S., Taillieu, T., El-Gabalawy, R., Sareen, J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2017). Chronic pain among public safety personnel in Canada. Canadian Journal of Pain, 1(1), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/24740527.2017.1410431 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Chatzea, V. E., Sifaki-Pistolla, D., Vlachaki, S. A., Melidoniotis, E., & Pistolla, G. (2018). PTSD, burnout and well-being among rescue workers: Seeking to understand the impact of the European refugee crisis on rescuers. Psychiatry Research, 262, 446–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.022 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Christopher, M. S., Hunsinger, M., Goerling, L. R. J., Bowen, S., Rogers, B. S., Gross, C. R., Dapolonia, E., & Pruessner, J. C. (2018). Mindfulness-based resilience training to reduce health risk, stress reactivity, and aggression among law enforcement officers: A feasibility and preliminary efficacy trial. Psychiatry Research, 264, 104–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.059 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Darensburg, T., Andrew, M. E., Hartley, T. A., Burchfiel, C. M., Fekedulegn, D., & Violanti, J. M. (2006). Gender and age differences in posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among Buffalo police officers. Traumatology, 12(3), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765606296271 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • DeSalvo, K. B., Olson, R., & Casavale, K. O. (2016). Dietary guidelines for Americans. Journal of the American Medical Association, 315(5), 457–458. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.18396 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo-Chase, D. (2017). If, why, and when subjective well-being influences health, and future needed research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Dryden, R., Williams, B., McCowan, C., & Themessl-Huber, M. (2012). What do we know about who does and does not attend general health checks? Findings from a narrative scoping review. BMC Public Health, 12(1), Article 723. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-723 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Dutra, S. J., & Sadeh, N. (2018). Psychological flexibility mitigates effects of PTSD symptoms and negative urgency on aggressive behavior in trauma-exposed veterans. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 9(4), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000251 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Finkelstein-Fox, L., Pavlacic, J. M., Buchanan, E. M., Schulenberg, S. E., & Park, C. L. (2020). Valued living in daily experience: Relations with mindfulness, meaning, psychological flexibility, and stressors. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44, 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-019-10062-7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Flaxman, P. E., & Bond, F. W. (2010). A randomised worksite comparison of acceptance and commitment therapy and stress inoculation training. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(8), 816–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.05.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fledderus, M., Oude Voshaar, M. A., ten Klooster, P. M., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2012). Further evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire – II. Psychological Assessment, 24(4), 925–936. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028200 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fordyce, W. E., Lansky, D., Calsyn, D. A., Shelton, J. L., Stolov, W. C., & Rock, D. L. (1984). Pain measurement and pain behavior. Pain, 18(1), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(84)90126-x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Forman, E. M., Butryn, M. L., Hoffman, K., & Herbert, J. D. (2009). An open trial of an acceptance-based behavioral treatment for weight loss. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 16, 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.09.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Garber, C., Blissmer, B., Deschenes, M., Franklin, B., LaMonte, M., Lee, I., Nieman, D., & Swain, D. (2011). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: Guidance for prescribing exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(7), 1334–1359. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213fefb First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gentili, C., Rickardsson, J., Zetterqvist, V., Simons, L. E., Lekander, M., & Wicksell, R. K. (2019). Psychological flexibility as a resilience factor in individuals with chronic pain. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02016 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gershon, R. R., Barocas, B., Canton, A. N., Li, X., & Vlahov, D. (2009). Mental, physical, and behavioral outcomes associated with perceived work stress in police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(3), 275–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854808330015 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gill, T. M., & Feinstein, A. R. (1994). A critical appraisal of the quality of quality-of-life measurements. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272(8), 619–626. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03520080061045 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gloster, A. T., Meyer, A. H., & Lieb, R. (2017). Psychological flexibility as a malleable public health target: Evidence from a representative sample. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 6(2), 166–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2017.02.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Guffey, J. E., Larson, J. G., & Lasley, J. (2015). Police officer fitness, diet, lifestyle and its relationship to duty performance and injury. Journal of Legal Issues and Cases in Business, 3(1), 1–17. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Han, M., Park, S., Park, J. H., Hwang, S. S., & Kim, I. (2018). Do police officers and firefighters have a higher risk of disease than other public officers? A 13-year nationwide cohort study in South Korea. BMJ Open, 8(1), Article e019987. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019987 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hardy, J., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2017). Intra-individual variability and psychological flexibility: Affect and health in a National US sample. Journal of Research in Personality, 69, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.04.002 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Harman, J. L., Zhang, D. C., & Greening, S. G. (2019). Basic Processes in Dynamic Decision Making: How experimental findings about risk, uncertainty, and emotion can contribute to police decision making. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(1), Article 2140. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02140 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hartley, T. A., Burchfiel, C. M., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M. E., & Violanti, J. M. (2011). Health disparities in police officers: Comparisons to the US general population. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 13(4), 211–220. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hartley, T. A., Violanti, J. M., Sarkisian, K., Fekedulegn, D., Mnatsakanova, A., Andrew, M. E., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2014). Association between police-specific stressors and sleep quality: Influence of coping and depressive symptoms. Journal of Law Enforcement Leadership and Ethics, 1(1), 31–48. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach, Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hayes, S. C. (2004). Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy, 35(4), 639–665. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80013-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hayes, S. C., Levin, M. E., Plumb-Vilardaga, J., Villatte, J. L., & Pistorello, J. (2013). Acceptance and commitment therapy and contextual behavioral science: Examining the progress of a distinctive model of behavioral and cognitive therapy. Behavior Therapy, 44(2), 180–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.08.002 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hirshkowitz, M., Whiton, K., Albert, S. M., Alessi, C., Bruni, O., DonCarlos, L., Hazen, N., Herman, J., Kats, E. S., Kheirandish-Gozal, L., Neubauer, D. H., O’Donnell, A. E., Ohayon, M., Peever, J., Rawding, R., Sachdeva, R. C., Setters, B., Vitiello, M. V., Ware, J. C., & Hillard, P. J. (2015). National Sleep Foundation’s sleep time duration recommendations: Methodology and results summary. Sleep Health, 1(1), 40–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Howell, R. T., Kern, M. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes. Health Psychology Review, 1, 83–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492486 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Janczura, M., Bochenek, G., Nowobilski, R., Dropinski, J., Kotula-Horowitz, K., Laskowicz, B., Stanisz, A., Lelakowski, J., & Domagala, T. (2015). The relationship of metabolic syndrome with stress, coronary heart disease and pulmonary function: An occupational cohort-based study. PLoS One, 10(8), Article e0133750. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133750 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Juniper, B., White, N., & Bellamy, P. (2010). A new approach to evaluating the well-being of police. Occupational Medicine, 60(7), 560–565. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqq130 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kangasniemi, A., Lappalainen, R., Kankaanpää, A., & Tammelin, T. (2014). Mindfulness skills, psychological flexibility, and psychological symptoms among physically less active and active adults. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 7(3), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2014.06.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kovacs, C., Stiglbauer, B., Batinic, B., & Gnambs, T. (2018). Exploring different forms of job (dis)satisfaction and their relationship with well‐being, motivation and performance. Applied Psychology, 67(3), 523–556. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12128 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kranz, D., Bollinger, A., & Nilges, P. (2010). Chronic pain acceptance and affective well-being: A coping perspective. European Journal of Pain, 14(10), 1021–1025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpain.2010.03.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Krieger, T., Zimmermann, J., Huffziger, S., Ubl, B., Diener, C., Kuehner, C., & Holtforth, M. G. (2014). Measuring depression with a well-being index: Further evidence for the validity of the WHO Well-Being Index (WHO-5) as a measure of the severity of depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 240–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.12.015 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kukic, F., Dopsaj, M., Cvorovic, A., Stojkovic, M., & Jeknic, V. (2018). A brief review of body composition in police workforce. International Journal of Physical Education, Fitness and Sports, 7(2), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.26524/ijpefs1822 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kula, S. (2017). Occupational stress, supervisor support, job satisfaction, and work-related burnout: Perceptions of Turkish National Police (TNP) members. Police Practice and Research, 18(2), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1250630 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lagestad, P., & Van Den Tillaar, R. (2014). Longitudinal changes in the physical activity patterns of police officers. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 16(1), 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2014.16.1.329 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Leonidou, C., Panayiotou, G., Bati, A., & Karekla, M. (2019). Coping with psychosomatic symptoms: The buffering role of psychological flexibility and impact on quality of life. Journal of Health Psychology, 24(2), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316666657 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Liberman, A. M., Best, S. R., Metzler, T. J., Fagan, J. A., Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (2002). Routine occupational stress and psychological distress in police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(2), 421–441. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210429446 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lyons, K., Radburn, C., Orr, R., & Pope, R. (2017). A profile of injuries sustained by law enforcement officers: A critical review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(2), 142–153. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020142 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Malcolm, E., Evans-Lacko, S., Little, K., Henderson, C., & Thornicroft, G. (2013). The impact of exercise projects to promote mental wellbeing. Journal of Mental Health, 22(6), 519–527. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2013.841874 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McCracken, L. M., & Velleman, S. C. (2010). Psychological flexibility in adults with chronic pain: A study of acceptance, mindfulness, and values-based action in primary care. Pain, 148(1), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2009.10.034 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McCracken, L. M., Vowles, K. E., & Eccleston, C. (2004). Acceptance of chronic pain: Component analysis and a revised assessment method. pain, 107(1–2), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2003.10.012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McCracken, L. M., Williams, J. L., & Tang, N. K. (2011). Psychological flexibility may reduce insomnia in persons with chronic pain: A preliminary retrospective study. Pain Medicine, 12(6), 904–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2011.01115.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ménard, K. S., & Arter, M. L. (2013). Police officer alcohol use and trauma symptoms: Associations with critical incidents, coping, and social stressors. International Journal of Stress Management, 20(1), 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031434 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mitmansgruber, H., Beck, T. N., & Schüßler, G. (2008). “Mindful helpers”: Experiential avoidance, meta-emotions, and emotion regulation in paramedics. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(5), 1358–1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Moran, D. J. (2011). ACT for leadership: Using acceptance and commitment training to develop crisis-resilient change managers. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 7(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100928 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Moreno-Agostino, D., Caballero, F. F., Martín-María, N., Tyrovolas, S., López-García, P., Rodríguez-Artalejo, F., Maria, J. H., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., & Miret, M. (2019). Mediterranean diet and wellbeing: Evidence from a nationwide survey. Psychology & Health, 34(3), 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2018.1525492 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nhan, J. (2014). Police culture. In J. S. AlbaneseEd., The encyclopedia of criminology and criminal justice (pp. 1–6). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118517383.wbeccj371 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Ong, C. W., Lee, E. B., Levin, M. E., & Twohig, M. P. (2019). A review of AAQ variants and other context-specific measures of psychological flexibility. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 12, 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.02.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Onwezen, M. C., van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M., & Biron, M. (2014). The role of psychological flexibility in the demands–exhaustion–performance relationship. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(2), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.742242 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Orr, R. M., Dawes, J. J., Pope, R., & Terry, J. (2018). Assessing differences in anthropometric and fitness characteristics between police academy cadets and incumbent officers. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(9), 2632–2641. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002328 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Panayiotou, G., Panteli, M., & Vlemincx, E. (2019). Adaptive and maladaptive emotion processing and regulation, and the case of alexithymia. Cognition and Emotion, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1671322 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rajaratnam, S. M., Barger, L. K., Lockley, S. W., Shea, S. A., Wang, W., Landrigan, C. P., O’Brien, C. S., Qadri, S., Sullivan, J. P., Cade, B. E., Epstein, L. J., White, D. P., & Czeisler, C. A. (2011). Sleep disorders, health, and safety in police officers. Journal of the American Medical Association, 306(23), 2567–2578. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1851 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Revelle, W. R. (2017). psych: Procedures for personality and psychological research, R Foundation. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rogge, R. D., Daks, J. S., Dubler, B. A., & Saint, K. J. (2019). It’s all about the process: Examining the convergent validity, conceptual coverage, unique predictive validity, and clinical utility of ACT process measures. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 14, 90–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.10.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sagui-Henson, S. J., Levens, S. M., & Blevins, C. L. (2018). Examining the psychological and emotional mechanisms of mindfulness that reduce stress to enhance healthy behaviours. Stress and Health, 34(3), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2797 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sairanen, E., Tolvanen, A., Karhunen, L., Kolehmainen, M., Järvelä, E., Rantala, S., Peuhkuri, K., Korpela, R., & Lappalainen, R. (2015). Psychological flexibility and mindfulness explain intuitive eating in overweight adults. Behavior Modification, 39(4), 557–579. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445515576402 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sanford, K., Kruse, M. I., Proctor, A., Torres, V. A., Pennington, M. L., Synett, S. J., & Gulliver, S. B. (2017). Couple resilience and life wellbeing in firefighters. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(6), 660–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291852 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sawe, B. A. (2017, September 19). List of countries by number of police officers. World atlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/list-of-countries-by-number-of-police-officers.html First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Scott, W., Hann, K. E. J., & McCracken, L. M. (2016). A comprehensive examination of changes in psychological flexibility following acceptance and commitment therapy for chronic pain. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 46, 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-016-9328-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Staehr, J. K. (1998). The use of well-being measures in primary health care: The DepCare project, World Health Organization. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Teo, C. H., Ling, C. J., & Ng, C. J. (2018). Improving health screening uptake in men: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 54(1), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.08.028 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Thayyil, J., Jayakrishnan, T. T., Raja, M., & Cherumanalil, J. M. (2012). Metabolic syndrome and other cardiovascular risk factors among police officers. North American Journal of Medical Sciences, 4(12), 630–635. https://doi.org/10.4103/1947-2714.104313 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tiesman, H. M., Gwilliam, M., Konda, S., Rojek, J., & Marsh, S. (2018). Nonfatal injuries to law enforcement officers: A rise in assaults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 54(4), 503–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.12.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Topp, C. W., Østergaard, S. D., Søndergaard, S., & Bech, P. (2015). The WHO-5 Well-Being Index: A systematic review of the literature. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 84(3), 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1159/000376585 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Trinkner, R., Tyler, T. R., & Goff, P. A. (2016). Justice from within: The relations between a procedurally just organizational climate and police organizational efficiency, endorsement of democratic policing, and officer well-being. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22(2), 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000085 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • US Census Bureau. (2018). The American Community Survey (ACS). https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/pums.html First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Violanti, J. M., Charles, L. E., McCanlies, E., Hartley, T. A., Baughman, P., Andrew, M. E., Fekedulegn, D., Ma, C. C., Mnatsakanova, A., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2017). Police stressors and health: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40(4), 642–656. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2016-0097 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wallerstein, N., & Duran, B. (2010). Community-based participatory research contributions to intervention research: The intersection of science and practice to improve health equity. American Journal of Public Health, 100(1), 40–46. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.184036 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Weiss, D. S., Brunet, A., Best, S. R., Metzler, T. J., Liberman, A., Pole, N., Fagan, J. A., & Marmar, C. R. (2010). Frequency and severity approaches to indexing exposure to trauma: The Critical Incident History Questionnaire for police officers. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 734–743. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20576 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Williams, J. M. G., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Mindfulness: Diverse perspectives on its meaning, origins, and multiple applications at the intersection of science and dharma. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564811 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wilson, K. G. (2009). Mindfulness for two: An acceptance and commitment therapy approach to mindfulness in psychotherapy, New Harbinger Publications. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wilson, K. G., Sandoz, E. K., Kitchens, J., & Roberts, M. (2010). The Valued Living Questionnaire: Defining and measuring valued action within a behavioral framework. The Psychological Record, 60(2), 249–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395706 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wolter, C., Santa Maria, A., Wörfel, F., Gusy, B., Lesener, T., Kleiber, D., & Renneberg, B. (2019). Job demands, job resources, and well-being in police officers: A resource-oriented approach. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 34(1), 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9265-1 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Younger, J., McCue, R., & Mackey, S. (2009). Pain outcomes: A brief review of instruments and techniques. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 13(1), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-009 cal-0009-x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zettle, R. D., Gird, S. R., Webster, B. K., Carrasquillo-Richardson, N., Swails, J. A., & Burdsal, C. A. (2018). The Self-as-Context Scale: Development and preliminary psychometric properties. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 10(1), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.08.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar