Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Article

Compulsive Exercise, Exercise Identity, and Coping Styles

Relationships in an Adult Community Sample

Published Online:November 23, 2022https://doi.org/10.1026/1612-5010/a000361

Abstract

Abstract: Compulsive exercise occurs among the general exercise population and is associated with adverse mental and physical health outcomes. The current study explored compulsive exercise behavior regarding coping styles and its relationship to identity to improve our understanding of compulsive exercise among the general exercise population. A community sample of 1,209 adults (aged 18 – 89) with varied exercise levels completed an online survey. We examined the relationships between engagement and disengagement coping styles (as assessed by the Coping Strategy Inventory) and exercise identity (Exercise Identity Scale) with compulsive exercise (Compulsive Exercise Test) using correlation, regression, and moderation analyses. Emotion-focused engagement (β = .075, p < .01) and emotion-focused disengagement (β = .212, p < .001) coping styles significantly predicted compulsive exercise, as did exercise identity (β = .514, p < .001). Coping styles did not moderate the relationship between exercise identity and compulsive exercise behaviors. The results indicate that both adaptive and maladaptive emotion-based coping styles are associated with greater compulsive exercise behavior.


Bewegungszwang, Bewegungsidentität und Bewältigungsstile: Beziehungen in einer Gemeinschaftsstichprobe von Erwachsenen

Zusammenfassung: Zwanghaftes Sporttreiben kommt in der Allgemeinbevölkerung vor und wird mit negativen Auswirkungen auf die psychische und physische Gesundheit in Verbindung gebracht. Die aktuelle Studie untersuchte zwanghaftes Sportverhalten im Hinblick auf Bewältigungsstile und die Beziehung zur Identität, um unser Verständnis von zwanghaftem Sport in der sportlich aktiven Allgemeinbevölkerung zu verbessern. Eine Stichprobe von 1.209 Erwachsenen (18 – 89 Jahre) aus der Allgemeinbevölkerung mit unterschiedlichem Ausmaß an sportlicher Aktivität füllte eine Online-Umfrage aus. Mit Hilfe von Korrelations-‍, Regressions- und Moderationsanalysen untersuchten wir die Beziehungen zwischen Bewältigungsstilen („Engagement“ vs. „Disengagement“) (bewertet mit dem Coping Strategy Inventory) und der Identität als sportlich aktive Person (Exercise Identity Scale) mit zwanghaftem Sportverhalten (Compulsive Exercise Test). Emotionsfokussiertes Engagement (β = .075, p < .01) und emotionsfokussiertes Disengagement (β = .212, p < .001) sagten zwanghaftes Training signifikant voraus, ebenso wie die Trainingsidentität (β = .514, p < .001). Die Bewältigungsstile moderierten nicht die Beziehung zwischen Bewegungsidentität und zwanghaftem Bewegungsverhalten. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass sowohl adaptive als auch maladaptive emotionsbasierte Bewältigungsstile mit stärkerem zwanghaftem Sportverhalten verbunden sind.

Literatur

  • Addison, C., Campbell-Jenkins, B.W., Sarpong, D.F., Kibler, J., Singh, M., Dubbert, P., Wilson, G., Payne, T., & Taylor, H. (2007). Psychometric evaluation of a Coping Strategies Inventory Short-Form (CSI-SF) in the Jackson heart study cohort. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 4, 289 – 295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph200704040004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Anderson, D., & Cychosz, C. M. (1994). Development of an Exercise Identity Scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 747 – 751. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Anderson, D. F., Cychosz, C. M., & Franke, W. D. (1998). Association of exercise identity with measures of exercise commitment and physiological indicators of fitness in a law enforcement cohort. Journal of Sport Behavior. 21, 233 – 241. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Anderson, D. F., Cychosz, C. M., & Franke, W. D. (2001). Preliminary Exercise Identity Scale (EIS) norms for three adult samples. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 1 – 9. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bahramizade, H., & Ali Besharat, M. (2010). The impact of coping with stress on sport achievement. Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences. 5, 764 – 769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.181 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Brewer, B., Van Raatle, J., & Linder, D. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscles or Achilles heel? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 237 – 254. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cardinal, B. J., & Cardinal, M. K. (1997). Changes in exercise behavior and exercise identity associated with a 14-week aerobic exercise class. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20, 377 – 386. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2007). Prevalence of regular physical activity among adults – United States, 2001 and 2005. Federal Information & News Dispatch. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Davis, C., Blackmore, E., Katzman, D. K., & Fox, J. (2005). Female adolescents with anorexia nervosa and their parents: A case-control study of exercise attitudes and behaviours. Psychological Medicine, 35, 377 – 386. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704003447 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • De Young, K. P., & Anderson, D. A. (2010). Prevalence and correlates of exercise motivated by negative affect. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 50 – 58. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Duhachek, A., & Oakley, J, L. (2007). Mapping the hierarchical structure of coping: Unifying empirical and theoretical perspectives. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17, 219 – 233. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Egorov, A. Y., & Szabó, A. (2013). The exercise paradox: An interactional model for a clearer conceptualization of exercise addiction. Journal of Behavioural Addictions, 2 (4), 199 – 208. https://doi.org/10.1556/JBA.2.2013.4.2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behaviour therapy for eating disorders: A ”transdiagnostic” theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 509 – 528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00088-8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2012). A grounded theory of psychological resilience in Olympic champions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 669 – 678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.04.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1979). The Eating Attitudes Test: An index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9, 273 – 279. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700030762 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871 – 878. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700049163 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Godier, L. R., & Park, R. J. (2014). Compulsivity in anorexia nervosa: A transdiagnostic concept. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 778. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00778 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Godin, G., & Shephard, R. J. (1997). Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29 (June Supplement), S36-S38. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Goodwin, H., Haycraft, E., & Meyer, C. (2011). Sociocultural correlates of compulsive exercise: Is the environment important in fostering a compulsivity toward exercise among adolescents? Body Image, 8, 390 – 395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.05.006 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Goodwin, H., Haycraft, E., & Meyer, C. (2012). The relationship between compulsive exercise and emotion regulation in adolescents. British Journal of Health Psychology, 17, 699 – 710. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.20448287.2012.02066.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Goodwin, H., Haycraft, E., & Meyer, C. (2014a). Emotional regulation styles as longitudinal predictors of compulsive exercise: A twelve-month prospective study. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 1399 – 1404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.10.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Goodwin, H., Haycraft, E., & Meyer, C. (2014b). Psychological risk factors for compulsive exercise: A longitudinal investigation of adolescent boys and girls. Personality and Individual Difference, 68, 83 – 86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.048 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Grave, R. D., Calugi, S., & Marchesini, G. (2008). Compulsive exercise to control shape or weight in eating disorders: Prevalence, associated features and treatment outcome. Comprehensive Psychology, 49, 346 – 352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.12.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Groves, M., Biscomb, K., Nevill, A., & Matheson, H. (2008). Exercise dependence, self-esteem and identity reinforcement: A comparison of three universities in the United Kingdom. Sport in Society, 11, 59 – 73. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430701717772 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Guidi, J., Pender, M., Hollon, S. D., Zisook, S., Schwartz, F. H., Pedrelli, P., Farabaugh, A. et al. (2009). The prevalence of compulsive eating and exercise among college students: An exploratory study. Psychiatry Research, 165(1 – 2), 154 – 162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.10.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hausenblas, H. A., & Symons Downs, D. S. (2002). How much is too much? The development and validation of the Exercise Dependence Scale. Psychology and Health, 17, 387 – 404. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hanton, S., Neil, R., Mellalieu, S. D., & Fletcher, D. (2008). Competitive experience and performance status: An investigation into multidimensional anxiety and coping. European Journal of Sport Science, 8, 143 – 152. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390801987984 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Homan, K. (2010). Athletic-ideal and thin-ideal internalization as prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and compulsive exercise. Body Image, 7, 240 – 245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.02.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Horton, R. S., & Mack, D. E. (2000). Athletic identity in marathon runners: Functional focus or dysfunctional commitment? Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 101 – 119. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Karr, T. M., Zunker, C., Thompson, R. A., Sherman, R. T., Erickson, A., Cao, L., Crosby, R. D., & Mitchell, J. E. (2013). Moderators of the association between exercise identity and obligatory exercise among participants of an athletic event. Body Image, 10, 70 – 77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.09.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Karr, T., Bauer, K., Graham, D. J., Larson, N., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2014). Exercise identity: Healthy and unhealthy outcomes in a population-based study of young adults. Journal of Sports Behavior, 37, 134 – 150. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kleinert, J., Zeeck, A., & Ziemainz, H. (2020). Sportsucht und Pathologisches Bewegungsverhalten [Sport addiction and pathological exercise behavior]. Kohlhammer. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kolar, D. R., & Gorrell, S. (2021). A call to experimentally study acute affect‐regulation mechanisms specific to driven exercise in eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 54, 280 – 286. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23427 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kolar, D. R., Neumayr, C., Roth, M., Voderholzer, U., Perthes, K., & Schlegl, S. (2020). Testing an emotion regulation model of physical activity in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: A pilot ecological momentary assessment. European Eating Disorders Review, 28, 170 – 183. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2706 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kolar, D. R., Kaurin, A., Meule, A., Schlegl, A., Dittmer, N., & Voderholzer, U. (2022). Interpersonal, affective and compulsive features of driven exercise in anorexia nervosa, Journal of Affective Disorders, 307, 53 – 61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.044 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kolnes, L., & Rodriguez-Morales, L. (2016). The meaning of compulsive exercise in women with anorexia nervosa: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 10, 48 – 61. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lally, P. (2007). Identity and athletic retirement: A prospective study. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 8 (1), 85 – 99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.03.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Lejoyeux, M., Avril, M., Richoux, C., Embouazza, H., & Nivoli, F. (2008). Prevalence of exercise dependence and other behavioural addictions among clients of a Parisian fitness room. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 353 – 359. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lichtenstein, M. B., Hinze, C. J., Emborg, B., Thomsen, F., & Hemmingsen, S. D. (2017). Compulsive exercise: Links, risks and challenges faced. Psychology Research and Behaviour Management, 10, 85 – 95. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S113093 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Little, R. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83 (404), 1198 – 1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Marques, A., Sarmento, H., Martins, J., & Nunes, L. S. (2015). Prevalence of physical activity in European adults: Compliance with the World Health Organization’s physical activity guidelines. Preventative Medicine, 81, 333 – 338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.09.018 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mellalieu, S. D., Neil, R., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. (2009). Competition stress in sport performers: Stressors experienced in the competition environment. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27 (7), 729 – 744. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410902889834 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meyer, C., Taranis, L., Goodwin, H., & Haycraft, E. (2011). Compulsive exercise and eating disorders. European Eating Disorders Review, 19, 174 – 189. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.1122 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meyer, C., Plateau, C. R., Taranis, L., Brewin, N., Wales, J., & Arcelus, J. (2016). The Compulsive Exercise Test: Confirmatory factor analysis and links with eating psychopathology among women with clinical eating disorders. Journal of Eating Disorders, 4 (22), 1 – 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-016-0113-3 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Müller, A., Claes, L., Smits, D., Gefeller, O., Hilbert, A., Herberg, A., Müller, V., Hofmeister, D., & de Zwaan, M. (2013). Validation of the German version of the Exercise Dependence Scale. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 29 (3), 213 – 219. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000144 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Noetel, M., Miskovic-Wheatley, J., Crosby, R. D., Hay, P., Madden, S., & Touyz, S. (2016). A clinical profile of compulsive exercise in adolescent inpatients with anorexia nervosa. Journal of Eating Disorders, 4, 1 – 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-0160090-6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Park, S., Lavallee, D., & Tod, D. (2013). Athletes’ career transition out of sport: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6, 22 – 53. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.687053 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Plateau, C. R., Shanmugam, V., Duckham, R. L., Goodwin, H., Jowett, S., Brooke-Wavell, K. S. F., Laybourne, A., Arcelus, J., & Meyer, C. (2014). Use of the compulsive exercise test with athletes: Norms and links with eating psychopathology. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26 (3), 287 – 301. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2013.867911 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Reichert, M., Schlegel, S., Jagau, F., Timm, I., Wieland, L., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., Hartmann, A., & Zeeck, A. (2020). Mood and dysfunctional cognitions constitute within-subject antecedents and consequences of exercise in eating disorders. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 89, 119 – 121. https://doi.org/10.1159/000504061 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Reifsteck, E. J., Gill, D. L., & Labban, J. D. (2015). “Athletes” and “exercisers”: Understanding identity, motivation and physical activity participation in former college athletes. Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology, 5, 25 – 38. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000046 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ruegsegger, G. N., & Booth, F. W. (2018). Health benefits of exercise. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 8. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a029694 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rudolph, S. (2018). The connection between exercise addiction and orthorexia nervosa in German fitness sports. Eating and Weight Disorders, 23, 581 – 586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-017-0437-2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Scharmer, C., Gorrell, S., Schaumberg, K., & Anderson, D. (2020). Compulsive exercise or exercise dependence? Clarifying conceptualizations of exercise in the context of eating disorder pathology. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 46: 101586. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schipfer, M., & Stoll, O. (2015). Exercise-addiction/exercise-commitment model (EACOM). Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4 (S1), 35 – 37. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schlegl, S., Dittmer, N., Hoffmann, S., & Voderholzer, U. (2018). Self-reported quantity, compulsiveness and motives of exercise in patients with eating disorders and healthy controls: Differences and similarities. Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-018-0202-6 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schlegl, S., Vierl, L., Kolar, D. R., Dittmer, N., & Voderholzer, U. (2022). Psychometric properties of the Compulsive Exercise Test in a large sample of female adolescent and adult inpatients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 55, 494 – 504. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23694 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Strachan, S. M., Brawley, L, R., Spink, K, S., & Jung, M. E. (2009). Strength of exercise identity and identity consistency. Journal of Health Psychology, 14 (8), 1196 – 1206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309346340 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stoll, O. (2018). Maladaptive coping strategies in sport. In R. FuchsM. Gerber (Eds), Handbook of stress regulation and sport (pp. 467 – 487). Springer. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Taranis, L., Touyz, S., & Meyer, C. (2011). Disordered eating and exercise: Development and preliminary validation of the Compulsive Exercise Test (CET). European Eating Disorders Review, 19, 256 – 268. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.1108 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tobin, D. L., Holroyd, K. A., Reynolds, R. V., & Wigal, J. K. (1989). The hierarchical factor structure of the coping strategies inventory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 343 – 361. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173478 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tobin, D. L., Reynolds, R., Garske, J. P., Holroyd, K. A., & Wigal, J. (1984). Collecting test-retest reliability data on a measure of coping process: The problem of situational effects. Paper presented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Turton, R., Goodwin, H., & Meyer, C. (2017). Athletic identity, compulsive exercise and eating psychopathology in long-distance runners. Eating Behaviors, 26, 129 – 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2017.03.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wilson, P. M., & Muon, S. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Exercise Identity Scale in a university sample. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6, 115 – 131. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zeeck, A., Schlegel, S., Giel, K. E., Junne, F., Kopp, C., Joos, A., Davis, C., & Hartmann, A. (2017). Validation of the German Version of the Commitment to Exercise Scale. Psychopathology, 50, 146 – 156. https://doi.org/10.1159/000455929 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ziemainz, H., Stoll, O., Drescher, A., Erath, R., Schipfer, M., & Zeulner, B. (2013). Die Gefährdung zur Sportsucht in Ausdauersportarten [To be at risk from exercise addiction in endurance sports]. German Journal of Sports Medicine/Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 64, 57 – 64. https://doi.org/10.5960/dzsm.2012.057 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar