Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury in Adolescents

What is Known About This New Research Diagnosis?

Published Online:August 11, 2015https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000229

Abstract

Abstract. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a prevalent, pervasive, clinically significant behavior in adolescents, frequently associated with serious social, physical, and psychological consequences. It is characterized by high comorbidity with various disorders. Therefore, NSSI has been included as a research diagnosis in the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., American Psychiatric Association (APA; 2013); DSM-5; Section 3), as a condition requiring further study for possible future official adoption. This is a positive step toward providing researchers with a uniform definition and criteria. This state-of-the-art article gives an overview of prevalence rates, comorbidity, clinical correlates, functions, and risk factors as well as treatment and dealing with adolescents with NSSI and their Internet activities. Furthermore, the association and differences between NSSI and suicidality as well as borderline personality disorder are reviewed. The article concludes with future directions for research, for example, the dimensional approach to classification of the Research Domain Criteria project.

References

  • Adrian, M., Zeman, J., Erdley, C., Lisa, L. & Sim, L. (2011). Emotional dysregulation and interpersonal difficulties as risk factors for nonsuicidal self-injury in adolescent girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 389–400. doi: 10.1007/s10802-010-9465-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Andover, M. S., Primack, J. M., Gibb, B. E. & Pepper, C. M. (2010). An examination of non-suicidal self-injury in men: Do men differ from women in basic NSSI characteristics?. Archives of Suicide Research, 14, 79–88. doi: 10.1080/13811110903479086 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Andrews, T., Martin, G., Hasking, P. & Page, A. (2013). Predictors of onset for non-suicidal self-injury within a school-based sample of adolescents. Prevention Science, 15, 850–859. doi: 10.1007/s11121-013-0412-8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Barrocas, A. L., Hankin, B. L., Young, J. F. & Abela, J. R. Z. (2012). Rates of nonsuicidal self-injury in youth: Age, sex, and behavioral methods in a community sample. Pediatrics, 130, 39–45. doi: 10.1542/peds.2011-2094 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bentley, K. H., Nock, M. K. & Barlow, D. H. (2014). The four-function model of nonsuicidal self-injury: Key directions for future research. Clinical Psychological Science, 20, 1–19. doi: 10.1177/2167702613514563 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bracken-Minor, K. L. & McDevitt-Murphy, M. E. (2014). Differences in features of non-suicidal self-injury according to borderline personality disorder screening status. Archives of Suicide Research, 18, 88–103. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2013.809040 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bresin, K. & Gordon, K. H. (2013). Changes in negative affect following pain (vs. nonpainful) stimulation in individuals with and without a history of nonsuicidal self-injury. Personality Disorders, 4, 62–66. doi: 10.1037/a0025736 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Brunner, R., Parzer, P., Haffner, J., Steen, R., Roos, J., Klett, M. & Resch, F. (2007). Prevalence and psychological correlates of occasional and repetitive deliberate self-harm in adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 641–649. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.161.7.641 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Claes, L., Houbon, A., Vandereycken, W., Bijttebier, P. & Muehlenkamp, J. (2010). Brief report: The association between non-suicidal self-injury, self-concept and acquaintance with self-injurious peers in a sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 775–778. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.10.012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., McCauley, E., Smith, C. J., Vasilev, C. A. & Stevens, A. L. (2008). Parent-child interactions, peripheral serotonin, and self-inflicted injury in adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 15–21. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.76.1.15 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Csorba, J., Dinya, E., Plener, P., Nagy, E. & Páli, E. (2009). Clinical diagnoses, characteristics of risk behaviour, differences between suicidal and non-suicidal subgroups of Hungarian adolescent outpatients practising self-injury. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 309–320. doi: 10.1007/s00787-008-0733-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fischer, G., Brunner, R., Parzer, P., Resch, F. & Kaess, M. (2013). Short-term psychotherapeutic treatment in adolescents engaging in non-suicidal self-injury: A randomized controlled trial. Trials, 14, 294. doi: 10.1186/1745-6215-14-294 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fleischhaker, C., Böhme, R., Sixt, B., Brück, C., Schneider, C. & Schulz, E. (2011). Dialectical behavioral therapy for adolescents (DBT-A): A clinical trial for patients with suicidal and self-injurious behavior and borderline symptoms with a one-year follow-up. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 5, 3. doi: 10.1186/1753-2000-5-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fortune, S., Sinclair, J. & Hawton, K. (2008). Help-seeking before and after episodes of self-harm: A descriptive study in school pupils in England. BMC Public Health, 8, 369. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-8-369 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Franklin, J. C., Aaron, R. V., Arthur, M. S., Shorkey, S. P. & Prinstein, M. J. (2012). Nonsuicidal self-injury and diminished pain perception: The role of emotion dysregulation. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 691–700. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.11.008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Franklin, J. C., Hessel, E. T., Aaron, R. V., Arthur, M. S., Heilbron, N. & Prinstein, M. J. (2010). The functions of nonsuicidal self-injury: Support for cognitive-affective regulation and opponent processes from a novel psychophysiological paradigm. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 850–862. doi: 10.1037/a0020896 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Glenn, C. R. & Klonsky, E. D. (2013). Nonsuicidal self-injury disorder: An empirical investigation in adolescent psychiatric patients. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42, 496–507. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2013.794699 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gould, M. S., Marrocco, F. A., Kleinman, M., Thomas, J. G., Mostkoff, K., Cote, J. & Davies, M. (2005). Evaluating iatrogenic risk of youth suicide screening programs: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 293, 1635–1643. doi: 10.1001/jama.293.13.1635 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gratz, K. L. (2003). Risk factors for and functions of deliberate self-harm: An empirical and conceptual review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 192–205. doi: 10.1093/clipsy.bpg022 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Groholt, B. & Ekeberg, O. (2009). Prognosis after adolescent suicide attempt: Mental health, psychiatric treatment, and suicide attempts in a nine-year follow-up study. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 39, 125–136. doi: 10.1521/suli.2009.39.2.125 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hamza, C. A., Stewart, S. L. & Willoughby, T. (2012). Examining the link between nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior: A review of the literature and an integrated model. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 482–495. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.05.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hamza, C. A. & Willoughby, T. (2013). Nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior: A latent class analysis among young adults. PLoS One, 8, e59955. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059955 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hankin, B. L. & Abela, J. R. Z. (2011). Nonsuicidal self-injury in adolescence: Prospective rates and risk factors in a 2½ year longitudinal study. Psychiatry Research, 186, 65–70. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.056 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hawton, K., Saunders, K. E. A. & O’Connor, R. C. (2012). Self-harm and suicide in adolescents. The Lancet, 379, 2373–2382. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60322-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hintikka, J., Tolmunen, T., Rissanen, M.-L., Honkalampi, K., Kylmä, J. & Laukkanen, E. (2009). Mental disorders in self-cutting adolescents. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 44, 464–467. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.10.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hooley, J. M., Ho, D. T., Slater, J. & Lockshin, A. (2010). Pain perception and nonsuicidal self-injury: A laboratory investigation. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 1, 170–179. doi: 10.1037/a0020106 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • In-Albon, T., Bürli, M., Ruf, C. & Schmid, M. (2013). Non-suicidal self-injury and emotion regulation: A review on facial emotion recognition and facial mimicry. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 7, 5. doi: 10.1186/1753-2000-7-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • In-Albon, T., Ruf, C. & Schmid, M. (2013). Proposed diagnostic criteria for the DSM-5 of nonsuicidal self-injury in female adolescents: Diagnostic and clinical correlates. Psychiatry Journal, 2013 article 159208, doi: 10.1155/2013/159208 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jarvi, S., Jackson, B., Swenson, L. & Crawford, H. (2013). The impact of social contagion on non-suicidal self-injury: A review of the literature. Archives of Suicide Research, 17, 1–19. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2013.748404 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Joiner, T. E. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kaess, M., Hille, M., Parzer, P., Maser-Gluth, C., Resch, F. & Brunner, R. (2012). Alterations in the neuroendocrinological stress response to acute psychosocial stress in adolescents engaging in nonsuicidal self-injury. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 157–161. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.05.009 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kaess, M., Parzer, P., Mattern, M., Plener, P. L., Bifulco, A., Resch, F. & Brunner, R. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and their impact on frequency, severity, and the individual function of nonsuicidal self-injury in youth. Psychiatry Research, 206, 265–272. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.10.01 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kettlewell, C. (1999). Skin game. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D. (2007). The functions of deliberate self-injury: A review of the evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 226–239. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.08.002 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D. (2009). The functions of self-injury in young adults who cut themselves: Clarifying the evidence for affect-regulation. Psychiatry Research, 166, 260–268. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2008.02.008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D. (2011). Nonsuicidal self-injury. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D. & Glenn, C. (2009). Psychosocial risk and protective factors. In M. NixonN. HeathEds.. Self-injury in youth (pp. 45–58) New York, NY: Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D., May, A. M. & Glenn, C. R. (2013). The relationship between nonsuicidal self-injury and attempted suicide: Converging evidence from four samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 231–237. doi: 10.1037/a0030278 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D. & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2007). Self-injury: A research review for the practitioner. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 1045–1056. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20412 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Klonsky, E. D., Oltmanns, T. F. & Turkheimer, E. (2003). Deliberate self-harm in a nonclinical population: Prevalence and psychological correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1501–1508. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1501 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lewis, S. P., Heath, N. L., Michal, N. J. & Duggan, J. M. (2012). Non-suicidal self-injury, youth, and the Internet: What mental health professionals need to know. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6, 13. doi: 10.1186/1753-2000-6-13 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Perrine, N., Dierker, L. & Kelley, M. L. (2007). Characteristics and functions of non-suicidal self-injury in a community sample of adolescents. Psychological Medicine, 37, 1183–1192. doi: 10.1017/S003329170700027X First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mackay, N. & Barrowclough, C. (2005). Accident and emergency staff’s perceptions of deliberate self-harm: Attributions, emotions and willingness to help. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 255–267. doi: 10.1348/014466505X29620 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Maniglio, R. (2011). The role of child sexual abuse in the etiology of suicide and non‐suicidal self‐injury. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124, 30–41. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01612.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Moran, P., Coffey, C., Romaniuk, H., Olsson, C., Borschmann, R., Carlin, J. B. & Patton, G. C. (2012). The natural history of self-harm from adolescence to young adulthood: A population-based cohort study. Lancet, 379, 236–243. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61141-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Muehlenkamp, J., Brausch, A., Quigley, K. & Whitlock, J. (2013). Interpersonal features and functions of nonsuicidal self-injury. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 43, 67–80. doi: 10.1111/j.1943-278X.2012.00128.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J., Claes, L., Havertape, L. & Plener, P. L. (2012). International prevalence of adolescent non-suicidal self-injury and deliberate self-harm. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6, 1–9. doi: 10.1186/1753-2000-6-10 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J. & Gutierrez, P. M. (2004). An investigation of differences between self-injurious behavior and suicide attempts in a sample of adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 34, 12–23. doi: 10.1080/13811110600992902 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J., Walsh, B. W. & McDade, M. (2010). Preventing non-suicidal self-injury in adolescents: The signs of self-injury program. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 306–314. doi: 10.1007/s10964-009-9450-8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nixon, M. K., Cloutier, P. F. & Aggarwal, S. (2002). Affect regulation and addictive aspects of repetitive self-injury in hospitalized adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1333–1341. doi: 10.1097/01.CHI.0000024844.60748.C6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock M. K. (Ed.). (2009). Understanding nonsuicidal self-injury: Origins, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K. (2010). Self-injury. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 339–363. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131258 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K., Joiner, T. E. Jr., Gordon, K. H., Lloyd-Richardson, E. & Prinstein, M. J. (2006). Non-suicidal self-injury among adolescents: Diagnostic correlates and relation to suicide attempts. Psychiatry Research, 144, 65–72. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2006.05.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K. & Kessler, R. C. (2006). Prevalence of and risk factors for suicide attempts versus suicide gestures: Analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 616. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.616 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K. & Mendes, W. B. (2008). Physiological arousal, distress tolerance, and social problem-solving deficits among adolescent self-injurers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 28–38. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.76.1.28 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K. & Prinstein, M. J. (2004). A functional approach to the assessment of self-mutilative behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 885–890. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.885 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K. & Prinstein, M. J. (2005). Contextual features and behavioral functions of self-mutilation among adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 140–146. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.114.1.140 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nock, M. K., Prinstein, M. J. & Sterba, S. K. (2009). Revealing the form and function of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors: A real-time ecological assessment study among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 816–827. doi: 10.1037/a0016948 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ougrin, D., Zundel, T., Ng, A., Banarsee, R., Bottle, A. & Taylor, E. (2011). Trial of therapeutic assessment in London: Randomised controlled trial of therapeutic assessment versus standard psychosocial assessment in adolescents presenting with self-harm. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 96, 148–153. doi: 10.1136/adc.2010.188755 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Plener, P. L., Fischer, C. J., In-Albon, T., Rollett, B., Nixon, M. K., Groschwitz, R. C. & Schmid, M. (2013). Adolescent non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in German-speaking countries: Comparing prevalence rates from three community samples. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 1439–1445. doi: 10.1007/s00127-012-0645-z First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Prinstein, M. J., Heilbron, N., Guerry, J. D., Franklin, J. C., Rancourt, D., Simon, V. & Spirito, A. (2010). Peer influence and nonsuicidal self injury: Longitudinal results in community and clinically-referred adolescent samples. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 669–682. doi: 10.1007/s10802-010-9423-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rodham, K., Gavin, J., Lewis, S. P., St. Denis, J. M. & Bandalli, P. (2013). An investigation of the motivations driving the online representation of self-injury: A thematic analysis. Archives of Suicide Research, 17, 173–183. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2013.776459 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ross, A. M., Kelly, C. M. & Jorm, A. F. (2014). Re-development of mental health first aid guidelines for non-suicidal self-injury: A delphi study. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 236. doi: 10.1186/s12888-014-0236-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Selby, E. A., Bender, T. W., Gordon, K. H., Nock, M. K. & Joiner, T. E. Jr. (2012). Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) disorder: A preliminary study. Personality Disorders, 3, 167–175. doi: 10.1037/a0024405 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stanley, B., Winchell, R., Molcho, A., Simeon, D. & Stanley, M. (1992). Suicide and the self-harm continuum: Phenomenological and biochemical evidence. International Review of Psychiatry, 4, 149–155. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Swannell, S. V., Martin, G. E., Page, A., Hasking, P. & St John, N. J. (2014). Prevalence of nonsuicidal self-injury in nonclinical samples: Systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 44, 273–303. doi: 10.1111/sltb.12070 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Taiminen, T. J., Kallio-Soukainen, K., Nokso-Koivisto, H., Kaljonen, A. & Helenius, H. (1998). Contagion of deliberate self-harm among adolescent inpatients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 211–217. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199802000-00014 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tatnell, R., Kelada, L., Hasking, P. & Martin, G. (2013). Longitudinal analysis of adolescent NSSI: The role of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 885–896. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9837-6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Taylor, L. M., Oldershaw, A., Richards, C., Davidson, K., Schmidt, U. & Simic, M. (2011). Development and pilot evaluation of a manualized cognitive-behavioural treatment package for adolescent self-harm. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39, 619–625. doi: 10.1017/S1352465811000075 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Tuisku, V., Kiviruusu, O., Pelkonen, M., Karlsson, L., Strandholm, T. & Marttunen, M. (2014). Depressed adolescents as young adults – predictors of suicide attempt and non-suicidal self-injury during an 8-year follow-up. Journal of Affective Disorders, 152–154, 313–319. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.09.031 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Turner, B. J., Layden, B. K., Butler, S. M. & Chapman, A. L. (2013). How often, or how many ways: Clarifying the relationship between non-suicidal self-injury and suicidality. Archives of Suicide Research, 17, 397–415. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2013.802660 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Victor, S. E. & Klonsky, E. D. (2013). Daily emotion in non-suicidal self-injury. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 364–375. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22037 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Victor, S. E. & Klonsky, E. D. (2014). Correlates of suicide attempts among self-injurers: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 282–297. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2014.03.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Vonderlin, E., Haffner, J., Behrend, B., Brunner, R., Parzer, P. & Resch, F. (2011). Welche Probleme berichten Jugendliche mit selbstverletzendem Verhalten? [What problems are reported by adolescents engaging in self-injury behaviors?]. Kindheit und Entwicklung, 20, 111–118. doi: 10.1026/0942-5403/a000047 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Walsh, B. W. (2006). Treating self-injury: A practical guide. New York, NY: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wedig, M. M. & Nock, M. K. (2007). Parental expressed emotion and adolescent self-injury. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1171–1178. doi: 10.1097/chi.0b013e3180ca9aaf First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Whitlock, J., Eckenrode, J. & Silverman, D. (2006). Self-injurious behaviors in a college population. Pediatrics, 117, 1939–1948. doi: 10.1542/peds.2005-2543 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Whitlock, J., Muehlenkamp, J. & Eckenrode, J. (2008). Variation in nonsuicidal self-injury: Identification and features of latent classes in a college population of emerging adults. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 725–735. doi: 10.1080/15374410802359734 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Whitlock, J., Muehlenkamp, J., Eckenrode, J., Purington, A., Baral Abrams, G., Barreira, P. & Kress, V. (2013). Nonsuicidal self-injury as a gateway to suicide in young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52, 486–492. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Whitlock, J. L., Powers, J. L. & Eckenrode, J. (2006). The virtual cutting edge: The internet and adolescent self-injury. Developmental Psychology, 42, 407–417. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.42.3.407 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wilcox, H. C., Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., Pinchevsky, G. M. & O’Grady, K. E. (2012). Longitudinal predictors of past-year non-suicidal self-injury and motives among college students. Psychological Medicine, 42, 717–726. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wilkinson, P. (2013). Non-suicidal self-injury. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 75–79. doi: 10.1007/s00787-012-0365-7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wilkinson, P., Kelvin, R., Roberts, C., Dubicka, B. & Goodyer, I. (2011). Clinical and psychosocial predictors of suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury in the Adolescent Depression Antidepressants and Psychotherapy Trial (ADAPT). American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 495–501. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Yates, T. M. (2004). The developmental psychopathology of self-injurious behavior: Compensatory regulation in posttraumatic adaptation. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 35–74. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2003.10.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • You, J., Leung, F. & Fu, K. (2012). Exploring the reciprocal relations between nonsuicidal self-injury, negative emotions and relationship problems in Chinese adolescents: A longitudinal cross-lag study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 829–836. doi: 10.1007/s10802-011-9597-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • You, J., Lin, M. P., Fu, K. & Leung, F. (2013). The best friend and friendship group influence on adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 993–1004. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9734-z First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zetterqvist, M., Lundh, L.-G., Dahlström, O. & Svedin, C. G. (2013). Prevalence and function of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in a community sample of adolescents, using suggested DSM-5 criteria for a potential NSSI disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 759–773. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9712-5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar