Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Article

Age and Sex Differences in Temperament and Character Dimensions in a French Nonclinical Population

Published Online:September 12, 2016https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000203

Abstract

Abstract. The authors examined age and sex trends on the seven dimensions and 25 facets assessed by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) collected between 2006 and 2014. This cross-sectional study sought to better understand personality differences according to age and sex cohorts in a French nonclinical community sample (1,181 participants). Our results show significant differences in age groups in Novelty Seeking, Reward Dependence, Harm Avoidance, and Self-Transcendence. Women scored higher than men in Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence, and Cooperativeness. Men between 18 and 29 years old reported higher Novelty Seeking whereas older women had higher Harm Avoidance. Among all the dimensions of the TCI, only Self-Directedness presents a consistent Gender × Age interaction. Our study confirmed that there were personality-specific features in men and women. In addition, there were personality changes with age in both temperament and character dimensions. Our research highlighted the need to take into account both age and gender of subjects in the future analyses and interpretations of findings from the temperament and character inventories.

References

  • Al-Halabí, S., Herrero, R., Sáiz, P. A., García-Portilla, M. P., Errasti, J. M., Corcoran, P., … Bobes, J. (2011). A cross-cultural comparison between Spain and the USA: Temperament and character distribution by sex and age. Psychiatry Research, 30, 397–401. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.021 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Asano, T., Baba, H., Kawano, R., Takei, H., Maeshima, H., Takahashi, Y., … Arai, H. (2015). Temperament and character as predictors of recurrence in remitted patients with major depression: A 4-year prospective follow-up study. Psychiatry Research, 28, 322–325. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.12.017 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Brändström, S., Richter, J. & Przybeck, T. (2001). Distributions by age and sex of the dimensions of Temperament and Character Inventory in a cross-cultural perspective among Sweden, Germany, and the USA. Psychological Reports, 89, 747–758. doi: 10.2466/pr0.2001.89.3.747 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Casey, J. R. & Joyce, P. R. (1999). Personality disorder and the Temperament and Character Inventory in the elderly. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 100, 302–308. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1999.tb10865.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Chakroun-Vinciguerra, N., Faytout, M., Pélissolo, A. & Swendsen, J. (2005). Validation française de la version courte de l’inventaire du tempérament et du caractère (TCI-125) [French validation of the short version of the inventory of the temperament and character (TCI-125)]. Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy, 15, 27–33. doi: JTCC-03-2005-15-1-1155-1704-101019-200502126 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Chen, W. J., Chen, H. M., Chen, C. C., Chen, C. C., Yu, W. Y. & Cheng, A. T. (2002). Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire: Psychometric properties and construct validity in Taiwanese adults. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 158–166. doi: 10.1053/comp.2002.30797 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 573–588. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800180093014 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R. (2003). Completing the psychobiological architecture of human personality development: Temperament, character, and coherence. In U. StaudingerU. LindenbergerEds., Understanding human development: Dialogues with lifespan psychology (pp. 159–182). London, UK: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0357-6_8 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R. (2013). What makes people healthy, happy, and fulfilled in the face of current world challenges? Mens Sana Monographs, 11, 16–24. doi: 10.4103/0973-1229.109288 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R. & Kedia, S. (2011). The phylogenesis of human personality: Identifying the precursors of cooperation, altruism, and well-being. In R. W. SussmanC. R. CloningerEds., The origins of cooperation and altruism (pp. 63–110). New York, NY: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-9520-9_5 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R. & Švrakić, D. M. (1991). The Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire: U.S. normative data. Psychological Reports, 69, 1047–1057. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1991.69.3.1047 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., Švrakić, D. M. & Wetzel, R. D. (1994). The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI): A guide to its development and use. St-Louis, MO: Center for Psychobiology of Personality, Washington University. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R., Švrakić, D. M. & Przybeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 975–990. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cloninger, C. R. & Zohar, A. H. (2011). Personality and the perception of health and happiness. Journal of Affective Disorders, 128, 24–32. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.012 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Costa, P. T. Jr., Herbst, J. H., McCrae, R. R. & Siegler, I. C. (2000). Personality at midlife: Stability, intrinsic maturation, and response to life events. Assessment, 7, 365–378. doi: 10.1177/107319110000700405 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Duijsens, I. J., Spinhoven, P., Goekoop, J. G., Spermon, T. & Eurelings-Bontekoe, E. H. (2000). The Dutch Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI): Dimensional structure, reliability and validity in a normal and psychiatric outpatient sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 487–499. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00114-2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Field, D. & Millsap, R. E. (1991). Personality in advanced old age. Continuity or change? Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 299–308. doi: 10.1093/geronj/46.6.P299 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fresán, A., Robles-García, R., López-Avila, A. & Cloninger, C. R. (2011). Personality differences according to age and sex in a Mexican sample using the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 774–779. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.11.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Goncalves, D. M. & Cloninger, C. R. (2010). Validation and normative studies of the Brazilian Portuguese and American versions of the Temperament and Character Inventory – Revised (TCI-R). Journal of Affective Disorders, 124, 126–133. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2009.11.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hansenne, M. (2007). Psychology of personality 3rd rev. and exp. ed. Bruxelles, Belgium: De Boeck. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hansenne, M., Delhez, M. & Cloninger, C. R. (2005). Psychometric properties of the temperament and character inventory-revised (TCI-R) in a Belgian sample. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85, 40–49. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8501_04 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hansenne, M., Le Bon, O., Gauthier, A. & Ansseau, M. (2001). Belgian normative data of the Temperament and Character Inventory. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 56–62. doi: 10.1027/1015-5759.17.1.56 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Helson, R. (1999). A longitudinal study of creative personality in women. Creativity Research Journal, 12, 89–101. doi: 10.1207/s15326934crj1202_2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Helson, R., Jones, C. & Kwan, V. S. Y. (2002). Personality change over 40 years of adulthood: Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of two longitudinal samples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 752–766. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.752 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Helson, R., Kwan, V. S. Y., John, O. P. & Jones, C. (2002). The growing evidence of personality change in adulthood. Findings from research with personality inventories. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 287–306. doi: 10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00010-7 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Josefsson, K., Jokela, M., Cloninger, C. R., Hintsanen, M., Salo, J., Hintsa, T., … Keltikangas-Järvinen, L. (2013). Maturity and change in personality: Developmental trends of temperament and character in adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 713–727. doi: 10.1017/S0954579413000126 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kelly, E. L. (1955). Consistency of the adult personality. The American Psychologist, 10, 659–681. doi: 10.1037/h0040747 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kijima, N., Tanaka, E., Suzuki, N., Higuchi, H. & Kitamura, T. (2000). Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Temperament and Character Inventory. Psychological Reports, 86, 1050–1058. doi: 10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3.1050 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kose, S., Sayar, K., Kalelioglu, U., Aydin, N., Celikel, F. C., Gulec, H., … Cloninger, C. R. (2009). Normative data and factorial structure of the Turkish version of the Temperament and Character Inventory. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50, 361–368. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.09.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Martinotti, G., Mandelli, L., Di Nicola, M., Serretti, A., Fossati, A., Borroni, S., … Janiri, L. (2008). Psychometric characteristic of the Italian version of the Temperament and Character Inventory–revised, personality, psychopathology, and attachment styles. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 514–522. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.11.002 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McCarthy, V. L., Ling, J. & Carini, R. M. (2013). The role of self-transcendence: a missing variable in the pursuit of successful aging? Research in Gerontological Nursing, 6, 178–186. doi: 10.3928/19404921-20130508-01 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T. Jr. (1990). Personality in adulthood. New York, NY: Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T. Jr. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Miettunen, J., Kantojärvi, L., Veijola, J., Järvelin, M.-R. & Joukamaa, M. (2006). International comparison of Cloninger’s temperament dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1515–1526. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.006 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Miettunen, J., Lauronen, E., Kantojärvi, L., Veijola, J. & Joukamaa, M. (2008). Inter-correlations between Cloninger’s temperament dimensions – a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 15, 106–114. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2007.05.003 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Miettunen, J., Veijola, J., Lauronen, E., Kantojärvi, L. & Joukamaa, M. (2007). Sex differences in Cloninger’s temperament dimensions – a meta-analysis. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48, 161–169. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.10.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mikołajczyk, E., Zietek, J., Samochowiec, A. & Samochowiec, J. (2008). Personality dimensions measured using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and NEO-FFI on a Polish sample. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 17, 210–219. doi: 10.1002/mpr.264 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mroczek, D. K. & Spiro, A. (2003). Modeling intraindividual change in personality traits: Findings from the normative aging study. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, P153–P165. doi: 10.1093/geronb/58.3.P153 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mulder, R. T., Joyce, P. R., Sellman, J. F. & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Towards an understanding of defense style in terms of temperament and character. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93, 99–104. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09809.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Munafò, M. R. & Flint, J. (2011). Dissecting the genetic architecture of human personality. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 395–400. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.07.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pélissolo, A. & Lépine, J. P. (1997). Traduction française et premières études de validation du questionnaire de personnalité TCI .[French translation and first validation of the TCI personality questionnaire studies] Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 155, 497–508. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pélissolo, A. & Lépine, J. P. (2000). Normative data and factor structure of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) in the French version. Psychiatry Research, 94, 67–76. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1781(00)00127-X First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pélissolo, A., Mallet, L., Baleyte, J. M., Michel, G., Cloninger, C. R., Allilaire, J. F. & Jouvent, R. (2005). The Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised (TCI-R): Psychometric characteristics of the French version. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112, 126–133. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00551.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Picardi, A., Fagnani, C., Medda, E., Toccaceli, V., Brambilla, P. & Stazi, M. A. (2015). Genetic and environmental influences underlying the relationship between autistic traits and temperament and character dimensions in adulthood. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 58, 178–188. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.12.018 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Piedmont, R. L. (2001). Cracking the plaster cast: Big Five personality change during intensive outpatient counseling. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 500–520. doi: 10.1006/jrpe.2001.2326 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Roepke, S., McAdams, L. A., Lindamer, L. A., Patterson, T. L. & Jeste, D. V. (2001). Personality profiles among normal aged individuals as measured by the NEO PI-R. Aging & Mental Health, 5, 159–164. doi: 10.1080/13607860120038339 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sheehan, D. V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K. H., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., … Dunbar, G. C. (1998). The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59, 22–33. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Soldz, S. & Vaillant, G. E. (1999). The Big Five personality traits and the life course: A 45-year longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 208–232. doi: 10.1006/jrpe.1999.2243 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Srivastava, S., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D. & Potter, J. (2003). Development of personality in early and middle age: Set like plaster or persistent change? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1041–1053. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1041 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Staudinger, U. M. & Kunzmann, U. (2005). Positive adult personality development – Adjustment and/or growth? European Psychologist, 10, 320–329. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040.10.4.320 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Sung, S. M., Kim, J. H., Yang, E., Abrams, K. Y. & Lyoo, I. K. (2002). Reliability and validity of the Korean version of the Temperament and Character Inventory. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 235–243. doi: 10.1053/comp.2002.30794 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Švrakić, N. M., Švrakić, D. M. & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). A general quantitative theory of personality: Fundamentals of a self-organizing psychobiological complex. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 247–272. doi: 10.1017/S0954579400007070 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Švrakić, D. M., Whitehead, C., Przybeck, T. R. & Cloninger, R. C. (1993). Differential diagnosis of personality disorders by the seven-factor model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 991–999. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240075009 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Terracciano, A., McCrae, R. R., Brant, L. J. & Costa, P. T. Jr. (2005). Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of the NEO PI-R scales in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Psychology and Aging, 20, 493–506. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.20.3.493 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Trouillet, R. & Gana, K. (2008). Age differences in temperament, character and depressive mood: A cross-sectional study. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 15, 266–275. doi: 10.1002/cpp.580 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar