Skip to main content
Original Communication

Validity and Reliability of the Caregiving System Scale in the Italian Context

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000157

This study examines the validity and reliability of the Italian adaptation of the Caregiving System Scale (CSS), a recently developed tool designed to tap individual differences in the functioning of the caregiving system. A group of 259 participants took part in the study. Based on confirmatory factor analyses, the original two-factor structure of the CSS (hyperactivation and deactivation) was replicated in the Italian sample. The Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES) was used to test convergent validity. The results confirm the validity and reliability of the Italian version of the CSS, which may prove to be a useful tool in assessing the caregiving tendency in people from many fields (from parents to volunteers to those in helping professions).

References

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: Assessed in the strange situation and at home. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Baron-Cohen, S. & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger’s syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–165. doi 10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books, (Orig. ed. 1969). First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London, UK: Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Browne, M. W. & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. BollenJ. S. LongEds., Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Collins, N. L., Guichard, A. C., Ford, M. B. & Feeney, B. C. (2006). Responding to need in intimate relationships: Normative processes and individual differences. In M. MikulincerG. S. GoodmanEds., Dynamics of romantic love: Attachment, caregiving, and sex (pp. 149–189). New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cunico, L., Sartori, R., Maragnolli, O. & Meneghini, A. M. (2012). Developing empathy in nursing students: A cohort longitudinal study. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 21, 2016–2025. doi 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2012.04105.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Decety, J., Norman, G. J., Berntson, G. G. & Cacioppo, J. (2012). A neurobehavioral evolutionary perspective on the mechanisms underlying empathy. Progress in Neurobiology, 98, 38–48. doi 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.001 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • de Waal, F. B. M. (2008). Putting the altruism back into altruism: The evolution of empathy. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 279–300. doi 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B., Karbon, M., Maszk, P., Smith, M., O’Boyle, C. & Suh, K. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to dispositional and situational empathy-related responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 776–797. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.776 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Eisenberg, N. & Lennon, R. (1983). Sex differences in empathy and related capacities. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 100–131. doi 10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.100 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Fischer, A. H. (2000). Emotion and gender: Social psychological perspectives. London: Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Fraley, R. C. (2007). A connectionist approach to the organization and continuity of working models of attachment. Journal of Personality, 75, 1157–1180. doi 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00471.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • George, C. & Solomon, J. (1996). Representational models of relationships: Links between caregiving and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, 198–216. doi 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0355(199623)17 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • George, C. & Solomon, J. (1999). Attachment and caregiving: The caregiving behavioral system. In J. CassidyP. R. ShaverEds., Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 649–670). New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • George, C. & Solomon, J. (2008). The caregiving system: A behavioral-system approach to parenting. In J. CassidyP. R. ShaverEds., Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 833–856). New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gillath, O., Shaver, P. R. & Mikulincer, M. (2005). An attachment-theoretical approach to compassion and altruism. In P. GilbertEd., Compassion: Conceptualizations, research, and use in psychotherapy (pp. 121–147). London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gillath, O., Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., Nitzberg, R. A., Erez, A. & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2005). Attachment, caregiving, and volunteering: Placing volunteerism in an attachment-theoretical framework. Personal Relationships, 12, 425–446. doi 10.1111/j.1475-6811.2005.00124.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Haski-Leventhal, D. (2009). Altruism and volunteerism: The perceptions of altruism in four disciplines and their impact on the study of volunteerism. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 39, 271–299. doi 10.1111/j.1468-5914.2009.00405.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hein, G. & Singer, T. (2010). Neuroscience meets social psychology: An integrative approach to human empathy and prosocial behavior. In M. MikulincerP. R. ShaverEds., Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature (pp. 109–124). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hu, L. & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 135–142. doi 10.1080/10705519909540118 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • John, O. P., Robinson, R. W. & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of personality: Theory and research. New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Jöreskog, K. J. & Sörbom, D. (2004). LISREL 8.7 [Computer Software]. Chicago: Scientific Software International. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klein, K. J. K. & Hodges, S. D. (2001). Gender differences, motivation, and empathic accuracy: When it pays to understand. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 720–730. doi 10.1177/0146167201276007 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Krahé, B. (2010). Situation cognition and coherence in personality: An individual-centered approach. New York: Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Kunce, L. J. & Shaver, P. R. (1994). An attachment theoretical approach to caregiving in romantic relationships. In K. BartholomewD. PerlmanEds., Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 5, pp. 205–237). London, UK: Kingsley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mehrabian, A. (1996). Manual for the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES). Unpublished manual.. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mehrabian, A. (1997). Relations among personality scales of aggression, violence, and empathy: Validational evidence bearing on the Risk of Eruptive Violence Scale. Aggressive Behavior, 23, 433–445. doi 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mehrabian, A. & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40, 525–543. doi 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1972.tb00078.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mehrabian, A., Young, A. L. & Sato, S. (1988). Emotional empathy and associated individual differences. Current Psychology: Research and Reviews, 7, 221–240. doi 10.1007/BF02686670 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meneghini, A. M., Cunico, L. & Sartori, R. (in press). Empathy angel or devil? How shared emotions can help or hinder nurses in their relationships with patients. In D. F. WattJ. PankseppEds., The neurobiology and psychology of empathy. New York: Nova Science Publishers. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Meneghini, A. M. & Sartori, R. (2011). Il ruolo della tendenza empatica nel motivare il nonobligatory helping: una ricerca su un gruppo di volontari [How empathic tendency motivates nonobligatory helping: A study among a group of volunteers]. Psicologia di Comunità, 2, 95–106. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Meneghini A. M., Sartori R. & Cunico, L. (2006). Adattamento e validazione su campione italiano della Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale di A. Mehrabian [Adaptation and validation on an Italian sample of the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES) by Albert Mehrabian]. Ricerche di Psicologia, 29(1), 123–152. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Meneghini, A. M., Sartori, R. & Cunico, L. (2012). Adattamento italiano della Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES) di Albert Mehrabian [The Italian adaptation of the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES) by Albert Mehrabian]. Florence, Italy: Giunti Organizzazioni Speciali. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Messina, I., Palmieri, A., Sambin, M., Kleinbub, J. R., Voci, A. & Calvo, V. (2013). Somatic underpinnings of perceived empathy: The importance of psychotherapy training. Psychotherapy Research, 23, 169–177. doi 10.1080/10503307.2012.748940 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mikulincer, M., Gillath, O., Halevy, V., Avihou, N., Avidan, S. & Eshkoli, N. (2001). Attachment theory and reactions to others’ needs: Evidence that activation of the sense of attachment security promotes empathic responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1205–1224. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1205 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mikulincer, M. & Shaver, P. R., (2004). Security-based self-representations in adulthood: Contents and processes. In W. S. RholesJ. A. SimpsonEds., Adult attachment: Theory, research, and clinical implications (pp. 159–195). New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mikulincer, M. & Shaver, P. R. (2005). Attachment, security, compassion, and altruism. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 34–38. doi 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00330.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mikulincer, M. & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Minuchin, P. (1985). Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 289–302.. doi 10.2307/1129720?uid=2&uid=4&sid=21103995921131 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mischel, W. & Shoda, Y (2010). The situated person. In B. MesquitaL. Feldman BarrettE. R. SmithEds., The mind in context (pp. 149–173). New York: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Monroe, K. R. (1996). The heart of altruism. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Princeton University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Montagne, B., Kessels, R. P., Frigerio, E., De Haan, E. H. & Perrett, D. I. (2005). Sex differences in the perception of affective facial expressions: Do men really lack emotional sensitivity? Cognitive Processing, 6, 136–141. doi 10.1007/s10339-005-0050-6 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Noftle, E. E. & Gillath, O. (2009). Applying lessons from the person–situation debate to attachment theory and research. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(2), 260–261. doi 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.024 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W. & Pomerantz, E. M. (2004). On traits, situations, and their integration: A developmental perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 402–416. doi 10.1207/ s15327957pspr0804_5 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Sartori, R. (2005). Acquiescenza e desiderabilità sociale nella versione italiana della Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES) di Mehrabian [Acquiescence and social desirability in the Italian version of Mehrabian’s Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES)]. TPM, Testing Psicometria Metodologia, 12, 317–330. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Shaver, P. R. & Hazan, C. (1988). A biased overview of the study of love. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 473–501. doi 10.1177/0265407588054005 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M. & Shemesh-Iron, M. (2010). A behavioral-systems perspective on prosocial behavior. In M. MikulincerP. R. ShaverEds., Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature (pp. 73–91). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Sherman, G. D., Heidt, J., Iyer, R. & Coan, J. A. (2013). Individual differences in the physical embodiment of care: Prosocially oriented women respond to cuteness by becoming more physically careful. Emotion, 13(1), 151–158. doi 10.1037/a0029259 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Toussaint, L. & Webb, J. R. (2005). Gender differences in relationship between empathy and forgiveness. The Journal of Social Psychology, 145, 673–685. doi 10.3200/SOCP.145.6.673-686 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Watt, D. F. (2005). Social bonds and the nature of empathy. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12(8–10), 185–209. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar