Abstract
Zusammenfassung:1864 hatte der deutsche Biologe von Baer den Gedanken eines “Psychologischen Moments”, verstanden als kleinste Zeiteinheit psychischen Geschehens, eingeführt. Aufbauend auf von Baer schlug in unserem Jahrhundert Brecher (1932) als Dauer des Moments einen Wert von 55,5 ms vor. Békésy hat 1936 für Infraschall die Existenz einer ganzen Kaskade von Diskontinuitäten nachweisen können, die sich in regulärer Weise um diesen Wert gruppieren. Später wurden ähnliche quantenhafte Strukturen auch innerhalb anderer Paradigmen gefunden. In einer Serie von Arbeiten (bes. Geissler, 1987, 1992) haben wir gezeigt, daß Ansätze, die in Entsprechung zu einem zentralen Zeitgeber lediglich eine Hauptbezugsperiode annehmen (z. B. Stroud, 1956), von der sich alle anderen Perioden als Harmonische oder Subharmonische ableiten, nicht richtig sein können. Um die gefundenen Strukturen darstellen zu können, muß vielmehr eine in Zeitbereiche gegliederte zeitliche Architektur angenommen werden. Zeitbereiche werden nach dem vorgeschlagenen “Zeitquantenansatz” TQM durch die Annahme von drei gleichzeitig gültigen fundamentalen Bindungen bestimmt: (1) zu einem Bereich Rq gehörige Perioden sind jeweils ganzahlige Mehrfache N einer bereichsspezifischen kürzesten Periode Tq; (2) es existiert ein Vielfaches M = 30 von Tq der Bedeutung einer oberen Schranke des entsprechenden Bereichs, und (3) die kürzeste Periode Tq in einem beliebigen Bereich ist ein ganzzahliges Vielfaches einer absolut kürzesten kognitionsrelevanten Periode von ca. 4,5 ms Dauer, dem sog. Zeitquantum. Für die kleinsten denkbaren Bereiche R1 und R2, mit den vorausgesagten Obergrenzen bei 30 × 4.5 = 135 ms bzw. 30 × 9 = 270 ms, konnten diese Annahmen in Experimenten bestätigt werden. Unterstützende Ergebnisse anderer Forscher unter Bezug auf andere Paradigmen werden referiert. Es wird die Vermutung begründet, daß eine Beziehung zwischen Grundparametern des TQM Ansatzes und von Teghtsoonian (1971) entdeckten psychophysikalischen Invarianzen besteht. In einer kurzen Darstellung einer physiologischen Modellinterpretation von TQM wird auf der Grundlage von Verhaltensdaten die Annahme einer direkten Entsprechung zwischen bestimmten Zeitbereichen und Bändern relevanter Anteile von EEG-Aktivität diskutiert, deren Ausdehnung mit klassischen Definitionen kompatibel ist.
Summary: In 1864, the German biologist von Baer advanced the idea of a psychological moment defined as the smallest unit of mental time. In our century, building upon this notion, Brecher (1932) suggested for it a duration of 55.5 msec from threshold measurements in tactile vibration which practically showed no dependence on receptor density and no individual variation. Von Békésy (1936), referring to Brecher, demonstrated for low frequency sound a cascade of discontinuities to exist regularly spaced around this value. Later similar quantal structures were found within other paradigms. In a series of papers (cf. Geissler, 1987, 1992) we have shown that approaches (e.g. of Stroud, 1956) assuming merely one reference period corresponding to one central pacemaker to which other periods are harmonically related must be invalid. Instead, to account for general patterns of results a temporal range architecture is to be assumed. Temporal ranges according to the proposed taxonomic quantum approach, TQM, are simultaneously subject to three fundamental constraints: (1) Any periods within a given range Rq are integer multiples N of a shortest period Tq characteristic of it; (2) there is an integer multiple M = 30 of Tq representing the upper bound of periods included in a range, and (3) any shortest period within a given range is an integer multiple of an absolutely shortest period TQ0 relevant in cognition of about 4.5 msec duration, the “time quantum”. For the smallest of the assumed ranges R1 and R2 extending up to about 30 × 4.5 = 135 msec and 30 × 9 = 270 msec, respectively, these claims were corroborated in experiments. Supporting evidence from other researchers and paradigms is presented. We assert that the basic constants of TQM are related to psychophysical invariance properties as discovered by Teghtsoonian (1971). In a brief outline of a physiological interpretation of the TQM approach we suggest a fairly direct correspondence between ranges of behaviorally determined periods and bands in which the relevant portions of EEG activity are organized in a way compatible with classical band definitions.
Literatur
Allan, L. G. , Kristofferson, A. B. (1974). Judgments about the duration of brief stimuli. Perception & Psychophysics, 15 , 327– 334Allport, D. A. (1968). Phenomenal simultaneity and the perceptual moment hypothesis. British Journal of Psychology, 59 , 365– 406Baer, K. V. von (1864). Welche Auffassung der lebendigen Natur ist die richtige? Und wie ist diese Auffassung auf die Entomologie anzuwenden?. In Schmitzdorf, H. (Ed.), Reden, gehalten in wissenschaftlichen Versammlungen, und kleine Aufsätze vermischten Inhalts, 237-283. St. Petersburg: Verlag der Kaiserlichen HofbuchhandlungBasar, E. , Hari, R. , Lopes da Silva, F. H. , Schürmann, M. (1997). Brain Alpha Activity and Functional Correlates. International Journal of Psychophysiology, Special Issue 26Békésy, G. von (1936). Über die Hörschwelle und Fühlgrenze langsamer sinusförmiger Luftdruckschwankungen. Annalen der Physik, 26 , 5 554– 556Buzsáki, G. , Llinás , Singer, W. , Berthoz, A. , Christen, Y. (1994). Temporal coding in the brain . Berlin a.o.: Springer-VerlagBrecher, G. A. (1932). Die Entstehung und biologische Bedeutung der subjektiven Zeiteinheit, - des Moments. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Physiologie, 18 , 204– 243Block, R. A. (1990). Model of psychological time. In Block, R. A. (Ed.), Cognitive Models of Psychological Time, 1-58. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum AssBredenkamp, J. (1993). Die Verknüpfung verschiedener Invarianzhypothesen im Bereich der Gedächtnispsychologie. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, XI , 3 368– 385Bredenkamp, J. , Klein, K.-M. (1997). Experimental tests of four invariance hypotheses in the field of psychology of learning and memory. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, unveröffentl. ManuskriptBrysbaert, M. (1994). Behavioral estimates of interhemispheric transmission time and the signal detection method: A reappraisal. Perception & Psychophysics, 1994 56 , 4 479– 490Buffart, H. , Geissler, H.-G. (1984). Task-dependent representation categories and memoryguided inference during classification. In: E. Degreef and J. van Buggenhaut (Eds.), Trends in Mathematical Psychology, North-Holland, Amsterdam a. o., 33-58Buzsaki, G. , Horváth, Z. , Urioste, R. , Wise, K. (1992). High-frequency network oscillations in the hippocampus. Science, 256 , 1025– 1025Cavanagh, J. P. (1972). Relation between immediate memory span and the memory search rate. Psychological Review, 79 , 525– 530Donders, F. C. (1868). Die Schnelligkeit psychischer Prozesse. Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie, und wissenschaftliche Medicin, Jahrgang 1868 657– 681Dehaene, S. (1993). Temporal oscillations in human perception. Psychological Science, 4/4 , 264– 269Eckhorn, R. , Bauer, R. , Jordan, W. , Brosch, M. , Kruse, W. , Munk, M. , Reitboeck, H. J. (1988). Coherent oscillations: A mechanism of feature linking in the visual cortex?. Biological Cybernetics, 60 , 121– 130Elliott, M. A. , Müller, H. J. (1998 a). Synchronous information presented in 40 Hz flicker enhances visual feature binding. Psychological Science, 9 , 277– 283Elliott, M. A. , Müller, H. J. (1998 b). Evidence for a 40 Hz oscillatory short-term visual memory revealed by human reaction time measurements. Science, (submitted)Fabiani, M. , Schmer, H. , Tait, C. , Gafni, M. , Kinarti, R. (1979). A functional measure of brain activity: brain stem transmission time. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 47 , 483– 491Fechner, G. Th. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik, Bd. 2. Leipzig: Breitkopf und HaertelFreeman, W. J. (1964). A linear distributed feedback model for prepyriform cortex. Experimental Neurology, 10 , 525– 547Freeman, W. J. (1972). Measurement of open-loop responses to electrical stimulation in olfactory bulb of cat. Journal of Neurophysiology, 35 , 745– 761Freeman, W. J. (1974). Stability characteristics of positive feedback in aneural population. Trans. IEEE Biomedical Engineering, 21 , 358– 364Garner, W. R. , Clement, D. E. (1963). Goodness of pattern and pattern uncertainty. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2 , 446– 456Geissler, H.-G. (1983). The inferential basis of classification: From perceptual to memory code systems. Part 1 (Theory). In Geissler, H.-G. (Ed.), Buffart, H. F. J. M., Leeuwenberg, E. L. J. & Sarris, V. (Co-Eds.), Modern Issues in Perception, 87-105. Amsterdam a. o.: North HollandGeissler, H.-G. (1985). Sources of seeming redundancy in temporally quantized information processing. In G. d'Ydewalle (Ed.), Cognitive information processing and motivation. Selected/revised papers of the 23rd International Congress of Psychology, Vol. 3, 119-228. Amsterdam: North-HollandGeissler, H.-G. (1987). The temporal structure of central information processing: Evidence for a tentative time-quantum model. Psychological Research, 49 , 2/3 99– 106Geissler, H.-G. (1990). Foundations of quantized processing. In H.-G. Geissler (Ed.), in collaboration with M. H. Müller and W. Prinz, Psychophysical Explorations of Mental Structures, 193-210. Toronto: Hogrefe & HuberGeissler, H.-G. (1991). Zeitcodekonstanten - ein Bindeglied zwischen Psychologie und Physiologie bei der Erforschung kognitiver Prozesse? Hypothesen und Überlegungen zu Quantenstrukturen in der Alpha-Aktivität des Gehirns. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 199 , 2 121– 143Geissler, H.-G. (1992). New magic numbers in mental activity? On a taxonomic system for critical time periods. In H.-G. Geissler, S. W. Link and J. T. Townsend (Eds.), Cognition, Information Processing and Psychophysics, 293-322. Hillsdale: Erlbaum AssociatesGeissler, H.-G. (1995). Beziehungserkennung und interne Suche - zur Architektur und einem besonderen Fall struktureller Erkennung. In Pawlik, K. (Ed.),Bericht über den 39. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie, 570-575. Göttingen: HogrefeGeissler, H.-G. (1997). Is there a Way from Behavior to Nonlinear Brain Dynamics? On Quantal Periods in Cognition and the Place of Alpha in Brain Resonances. International Journal of Psychophysiology, Special Issue 26 381– 393Geissler, H.-G. , Buffart, H. (1985). Task-dependency and quantized processing in classification. In d'Ydewalle (Ed.), Cognitive Information Processing and Motivation, 277-294. Amsterdam: North-HollandGeissler, H.-G. , Lachmann, Th. (1996). Memory-guided inference in matching tasks: Symmetry and the case of inferred sets. Fechner Day. Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the International Society of Psychophysics, 119-124, Padua 1996Geissler, H.-G. , Lachmann, Th. (1997). Processing spatial symmetry: Evidence of two distinct components in visual comparison. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Psychophysics, 165-170. PoznanGeissler, H.-G. , Schebera, F.-U. , Kompass, R. (1999). Ultra-precise quantal timing: Evidence from simultaneity thresholds in long-range apparent movement. Perception & Psychophysics, 61 , 4 707– 726Gibbon, J. (1991). Origins of scalar timing. Learning and Motivation, 3-38Gray, C. M , König, P. , Engel, A. K. , Singer, W. (1989). Oscillatory responses in cat visual cortex exhibit inter-columnar synchronization which reflect global stimulus properties. Nature, 338 , 334– 337Hendrickson, A. E. (1972). An integrated molar/molecular model of the brain. Psychological Reports, 30 , 343– 368Hendrickson, D. E. , Hendrickson, A. E. (1980). The biological basis of individual differences in intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 1 , 3– 33Herrmann, C. , Pfeifer, E. , Mecklinger, A. (1998). Gamma Oscillations During Perception of Illusory Contours . (Manuscript submitted)Lachmann, Th. (1998). Repräsentationsgeleitete Suchprozesse bei der visuellen Relationserkennung. Dissertation, Universität LeipzigJensen, O. (1998). Oscillatory Short-term Memory Models. Dissertation, Brandeis UniversityJensen, O. , Gelfand, J. , Kounios, J. , Lisman, J. E. (1998). 10-12 Hz oscillations increase with memory load in a short-term memory task. Internet NoteJokeit, H. (1990). Analysis of periodicities in human reaction times. Naturwissenschaften, 77 , 289– 291Jürgens, E. , Rösler, F. , Hennighausen, E. , Heil, M. (1995). Stimulus-induced gamma oscillations: Harmonics of alpha activity?. Neuro Report, 6 , 813– 816Killeen, P. R. , Weiss, N. A (1987). Optimal Timing and the Weber Function. Psychological Review, 1987 94 , No. 4 455– 468Klix, F. , Hoffmann, J. (1978). The method of sentence-picture comparison as a possibility for analyzing the representation of meaning in human long-term memory. In F. Klix (Ed.), Human and Artificial Intelligence, 171-192. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der WissenschaftenKlix, F. , van der Meer, Elke (1978). Analogical reasoning - an approach to mechanisms underlying human intelligence performances. In F. Klix (Ed.), Human and Artificial Intelligence, 193-212. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der WissenschaftenKoth, A. (1987). Periodizitäten in Reaktionszeitverteilungen und Kippzeiten mehrdeutiger Bilder. Unveröffentl. Diplomarbeit, Sektion Psychologie der Universität LeipzigKristofferson, A. B. (1967). Successiveness discrimination as a two-state, quantal process. Science, 158 , 1337– 1339Kristofferson, A. B. (1977). A real-time criterion theory of duration discrimination. Perception & Psychophysics, 21 , 2 105– 117Kristofferson, A. B. (1980). A quantal step function in duration discrimination. Perception & Psychophysics, 27 , 300– 306Kristofferson, A. B. (1990). Timing mechanisms and the threshold for duration. In Geissler, H.-G. (Ed.) in collaboration with M. H. Müller and W. Prinz, Psychophysical Explorations of Mental Structures, 269-277. Toronto a.o.: Hogrefe & HuberKristofferson, M. W. (1972). Effects of practice on character-classification performance. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 26 , 540– 560Latour, P. L. (1967). Evidence of internal clocks in the human operator. Acta Psychologica, 27 , 93– 100 341– 348Lebedev, A. N. (1990). Cyclic Neural Codes of Human Memory and Some Quantitative Regularities in Experimental Psychology. In H.-G. Geissler (Ed.) in collaboration with M. H. Müller and W. Prinz, Psychophysical Explorations of Mental Structures, 303-310. Toronto a.o.: Hogrefe & HuberLeeuwenberg, E. L. J. , Buffart, H. F. J. M. (1983). An Outline of Coding Theory. Summary of Some Related Experiments. In Geissler, H.-G. (Ed.), Buffart, H. F. J. M., Leeuwenberg, E. L. J. & Sarris, V. (Co-Eds.), Modern Issues in Perception, 25-47. Amsterdam a. o.: North HollandLeyton, M. (1992). Symmetry, causality, mind. Cambridge Ma, London: MIT PressLink, S. W. (1991). The Wave Theory of Discrimination and Similarity. Hillsdale: Erlbaum AssociatesLisman, J. E. , Idiart, M. A. P. (1995). Storage of 7 ± 2 short-term memories in oscillatory subcycles. Science, 267 , 1512– 1515Maltseva, I. M. , Geissler, H.-G. , Basar, E. (2000). Alpha oscillations as an indicator of dynamic memory operations. International Journal of Psychophysiology, (im Druck)Maltseva, I. V. , Masloboyev, Y. P. (1992). About new EEG-Parameter. International Journal of Psychology, 27 , 3-4 p. 415– 415Michon, J. A. (1967). Timing in temporal tracking. Assen, The Netherlands: Van GorcumMichotte, A. (1982). Gesammelte Werke. Bd. 1-4. Herausgegeben von O. Heller und W. Lohr. Bern u. a.: Hans HuberNeuenschwander, S. , Singer, W. (1996). Long-range synchronization of oscillatory light responses in the cat retina and lateral geniculate nucleus. Nature, 379 , 728– 733Petzold, P. , Edeler (1995). Organization of person memory and retrieval processes in recognition. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25 , 249– 267Pöppel, E. (1968). Oszillatorische Komponenten in Reaktionszeiten. Naturwissenschaften, 55 , 449– 450Pöppel, E. (1970). Excitability cycles in central intermittency. Psychologische Forschung, 34 , 1– 9Pöppel, E. (1971). Oscillations as a possible basis for time perception. Studium Generale, 24 , 85– 107Pöppel, E. (1997). A hierarchical model of temporal perception. Keynote Address. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Psychophysics, 15-22. PoznanPuckett, J. M. , Kausler, D. H. (1984). Individual differences and models of memory span: A role for memory search rate?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 10 , 72– 82Puffe, Martina (1990). Quantized speed-capacity relations in short-term memory. In H.-G. Geissler (Ed.), in collaboration with M. H. Müller and W. Prinz, Psychophysical Exploration of Mental Structures, 290-302. Toronto a.o.: Hogrefe & HuberSchmidt, K.-D. , Ackermann, B. (1990). The Structure of Internal Representations and Reaction-Time Related Matching Task Phenomena. In Geissler, H.-G. (Ed.) in collaboration with M. H. Müller and W. Prinz, Psychophysical Explorations of Mental Structures, 278-289. Toronto a. o.: Hogrefe & Huber PublishersSokolov, E. N. (1963). Perception and the conditioned reflex. New York: Macmillan Company. Zit. nach Gaarder, K. R. (1975), Eye Movements, Vision and Behavior. New York: Wiley & SonsStebel, J. (1981). Feinstruktur-Spektralanalyse im Sekunden-Minuten-Bereich. In Schuh, J., Hecht, K. & Romanov, J. A. (Hrsg.), Chronobiologie - Chronomedizin. Berlin: Akademie-VerlagStebel, J. (1993). Vegetative rhythms and perception of time. In Gutenbrunner, C., Hildebrandt, G. & Moog, R. (Eds.), Chronobiology & Chronomedicine. Frankfurt a. M.: Peter LangSternberg, S. (1969). Memory-scanning: Mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments. American Scientist, 57 , 4 421– 457Stroud, J. M. (1955). The fine structure of psychological time. In Quastler, H. (Ed.), Information Theory in Psychology, 140-207. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free PressTallon-Baudry, C. , Bertrand, O. , Delpeuch, C. , Pernier, J. (1996). Stimulus specificity of phase-locked and non-phase-locked 40 Hz visual responses in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 16 , 4240– 4249Tallon-Baudry, C. , Bertrand, O. , Delpeuch, C. , Pernier, J. (1997). Oscillatory g-band (30-70 Hz) activity induced by a visual search task in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 17 , 722– 734Teghtsoonian, R. (1971). On the exponents in Stevens' law and on the constant in Ekman's law. Psychological Review, 78 , 71– 80Treisman, M. , Cook, N. , Naish, P. L. N. , MacCrone, J. K. (1994). The Internal Clock: Electroencephalographic Evidence for Oscillatory Processes Underlying Time Perception. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47A , 2 241– 289Uusitalo, M. A. , Williamson, S. J. , Seppä, M. T. (1997). Dynamical Organization of the Human Visual System Revealed by Lifetimes of Activation Traces. Neuroscience Letters, im DruckVorberg, D. , Schwarz, W. (1987). Oscillatory mechanisms in human reaction times?. Naturwissenschaften, 74 , 446– 447Vroon, P. A. (1974). Is there a time quantum in duration experience?. American Journal of Psychology, 87 , 237– 245Williamson, S. J. , Kaufman, L. , Lu, Z.-L. , Wang, J.-Z. , Karron, D. (1997). Study of Human Occipital Alpha Rhythm: The Alphon Hypothesis and Alpha Suppression. International Journal of Psychophysiology, Special Issue 26 63– 76
