Abstract
Soziale Wahrnehmung, Kommunikation und Interaktion erfordern eine effiziente Analyse und Repräsentation personenbezogener Informationen. Dabei transportieren vor allem Gesichter und Stimmen eine Vielzahl sozial relevanter Informationen, etwa über die Identität einer Person, Emotionen, Geschlecht, Alter, Attraktivität, ethnische Zugehörigkeit oder momentaner Aufmerksamkeitsfokus. Trotz dieses Wissens sind die perzeptuellen Mechanismen der Wahrnehmung komplexer sozialer Stimuli erst in den letzten Jahren systematischer untersucht worden. Diese Entwicklung wurde vorallem durch (1) die Verfügbarkeit sophistizierter Reizmanipulationstechniken (z. B. Bild-, Video- und Stimmen-Morphing, Karikierung, und Mittelungstechniken) sowie (2) die Verfügbarkeit von Messmethoden der kognitiven und sozialen Neurowissenschaften ermöglicht. In diesem Artikel fassen wir den aktuellen Forschungsstand der Wahrnehmung von Personen, besonders bezüglich Gesichter und Stimmen, zusammen. Dabei diskutieren wir ausgewählte Beispiele aktueller Forschung, und legen dar, wie sich die Personenwahrnehmung zu einem zentralen Thema psychologischer Forschung entwickelt hat. Neue Evidenz zeigt, dass sozial relevante perzeptuelle Informationen in Gesichtern oder Stimmen nicht nur erste Eindrücke über Personen erzeugen, sondern dass diese Eindrücke auch moderate Validität aufweisen, so dass Gesichter oder Stimmen als „Fenster zur Person” betrachtet werden können. Wir argumentieren, dass weitere Fortschritte in anderen Feldern der sozialen Kognitionsforschung, welche reale oder virtuelle Agenten berücksichtigen (z. B. Theory of Mind Forschung, soziale Kategorisierung, menschliche Entscheidungen) von einer Berücksichtigung fazialer oder stimmlicher Informationen in der Personenwahrnehmung profitieren.
Human social perception, communication, and interaction all require the efficient analysis and representation of person-related information. Faces or voices convey a large variety of socially relevant information, including a person’s identity, emotions, gender, age, attractiveness, ethnic group, or focus of attention. However, perceptual mechanisms for processing such complex social stimuli have only recently become the focus of more systematic research. This development was arguably facilitated (1) by the availability of sophisticated stimulus manipulation techniques (e. g., image-, video-, and voice-morphing, caricaturing, and averaging) allowing researchers to create completely naturalistic person stimuli in which perceptual social cues are nevertheless under precise experimental control, and (2) by the availability of methods from the cognitive and social neurosciences. Here we review the current status of the field of person perception. In doing so, we discuss selected examples of highly active areas of research and show how person perception currently has developed into a central topic within psychological research. Evidence is emerging to suggest that perceptual social cues in faces or voices are not only spontaneously used to promote first impressions about people, but also that such impressions can show a degree of validity, suggesting that faces or voices can be seen as windows to the person behind. Accordingly, we argue that progress in other fields of social cognition that deal with real or virtual agents (e. g., theory of mind research, social categorization, human decision-making) will be enhanced by considering more strongly the influences of perceptual facial or vocal person information.
Literatur
(2009). Do Humans Have Two Systems to Track Beliefs and Belief-Like States? Psychological Review, 116, 953 – 970.
(2006). Is belief reasoning automatic? Psychological Science, 17, 841 – 844.
(2010). Two sources of evidence on the non-automaticity of true and false belief ascription. Cognition, 115, 54 – 70.
(1996). Acoustic profiles in vocal emotion expression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 614 – 636.
(1985). Does the autistic child have a Theory of Mind. Cognition, 21, 37 – 46.
(1979). Emotion recognition: The role of facial movement and the relative importance of upper and lower areas of the face. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 2049 – 2058.
(1995). Categorical effects in the perception of faces. Cognition, 57, 217 – 239.
(2011). Understanding Voice Perception. British Journal of Psychology, 102, 711 – 725.
(2013). Integrating face and voice in person perception. New York, Heidelberg: Springer.
(2003). Adaptation to speakers voice in right anterior temporal lobe. NeuroReport, 14, 2105 – 2109.
(2000). Voice-selective areas in human auditory cortex. Nature, 403, 309 – 312.
(1991). Perception and recognition of photographic quality facial caricatures: Implications for the recognition of natural images. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 3, 105 – 135.
(1996). Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 551 – 565.
(2011). Direct Structural Connections between Voice- and Face-Recognition Areas. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 12906 – 12915.
(1947). Die Prosop-Agnosie. (Die Agnosie des Physiognomieerkennens). Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 179, 6 – 53.
(1979). Searching for politicians: An information-processing approach to face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 373 – 395.
(1999). Verification of face identities from images captured on video. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 339 – 360.
(1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77, 305 – 327.
(2012). Face Perception. London, NY: Psychology Press.
(2010). Vocal attractiveness increases by averaging. Current Biology, 20, 116 – 120.
(1999). Face recognition in poor-quality video: Evidence from security surveillance. Psychological Science, 10, 243 – 248.
(1981). Asymmetries of the contingent negative variation (CNV) and its after positive wave (APW) related to differential hemispheric involvement in verbal and nonverbal tasks. Biological Psychology, 13, 157 – 171.
(2011). The Oxford Handbook of Face Perception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(2005). Understanding the recognition of facial identity and facial expression. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 641 – 651.
(2009). Electrophysiological evidence for an early processing of human voices. Bmc Neuroscience, 127 (10), 1 – 11.
(1982). Prosopagnosia: Anatomic basis and behavioral mechanisms. Neurology, 32, 331 – 341.
(1989). Stereotypes and Prejudice–Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5 – 18.
(2007). An event-related potentials study of face identification and naming: The tip-of-the-tongue state. Psychophysiology, 44, 50 – 68.
(2004). Speech perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 149 – 179.
(2007). Prosopagnosia without apparent cause: Overview, new cases, and diagnosis. Cortex, 43, 718 – 733.
(2008). The roles of „face” and „non-face” areas during individual face perception: Evidence by fMRI adaptation in a brain-damaged prosopagnosic patient. NeuroImage, 40, 318 – 332.
(2005). Familiarity enhances invariance of face representations in human ventral visual cortex: fMRI evidence. NeuroImage, 26, 1128 – 1139.
(2011). The face-sensitive N170 component of the event-related brain potential. In , The Oxford Handbook of Face Perception (pp. 329 – 344). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(2012). Electrophysiological markers of covert face recognition in developmental prosopagnosia. Brain, 135, 542 – 554.
(2011). A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. Psychological Review, 118, 247 – 279.
(2009). Developmental phonagnosia: A selective deficit of vocal identity recognition. Neuropsychologia, 47, 123 – 131.
(2010). Categorical perception. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews-Cognitive Science, 1, 69 – 78.
(2009). MEG demonstrates a supra-additive response to facial and vocal emotion in the right superior temporal sulcus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 20010 – 20015.
(2000). Recognition of unfamiliar faces. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 330 – 337.
(2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 223 – 233.
(1962). Agnosia for faces (prosopagnosia). Archives of Neurology, 7, 92 – 100.
(2004). What′s special about personally familiar faces? A multimodal approach. Psychophysiology, 41, 688 – 701.
(2011). On the specificity of face cognition compared with general cognitive functioning across adult age. Psychology and Aging, 26, 701 – 715.
(2003). Matching faces for semantic information and names: An event-related brain potentials study. Cognitive Brain Research, 17, 314 – 326.
(1989). A face-responsive potential recorded from the human scalp. Experimental Brain Research, 78, 193 – 202.
(1996). Evoked potentials studies of face and object processing. Visual Cognition, 3, 1 – 38.
(2006). I thought you were looking at me–Direction-specific aftereffects in gaze perception. Psychological Science, 17, 506 – 513.
(2013). Identifiable images of bystanders extracted from corneal reflections. PLoS ONE, 8 (12).
(2012). Signals of personality and health: The contributions of facial shape, skin texture, and viewing angle. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 38, 1353 – 1361.
(1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 4302 – 4311.
(2009). N250 ERP Correlates of the Acquisition of Face Representations across Different Images. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 625 – 641.
(1999). Restructuring speech representations using a pitch-adaptive time-frequency smoothing and an instantaneous-frequency-based F0 extraction: Possible role of a repetitive structure in sounds. Speech Communication, 27, 187 – 207.
(2003). Auditory morphing based on an elastic perceptual distance metric in an interference-free time-frequency representation. IEEE Proc.ICASSP, 256 – 259.
(2013). Temporally variable multi-aspect N-way morphing based on interference-free speech representations. Proc.APSIPA, 1 – 10.
(2010). The social sense: Susceptibility to others beliefs in human infants and adults. Science, 330, 1830 – 1834.
(2004). Smelling human sex hormone-like compounds affects face gender judgment of men. NeuroReport, 15, 1275 – 1277.
(2010). Internal facial features are signals of personality and health. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 2273 – 2287.
(2011). Foundations of voice studies: An interdisciplinary approach to voice production and perception. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
(2003). Modulation of neural responses to speech by directing attention to voices or verbal content. Cognitive Brain Research, 17, 48 – 55.
(1986). Are unilateral right posterior cerebral lesions sufficient to cause prosopagnosia? Clinical and radiological findings in six additional patients. Cortex, 243 – 252.
(1990). Attractive faces are only average. Psychological Science, 1, 115 – 121.
(2011). Anti-voice adaptation suggests prototype-based coding of voice identity. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, Article 175.
(2013). Norm-based coding of voice identity in human auditory cortex. Current Biology, 23, 1075 – 1080.
(2001). Prototype-referenced shape encoding revealed by high-level aftereffects. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 89 – 94.
(2001). Processing specificity for human voice stimuli: Electrophysiological evidence. NeuroReport, 12, 2653 – 2657.
(2007). Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology. Volume 2: Memory for People. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
(1976). Developmental Prosopagnosia–Single Case-Report. Cortex, 12, 76 – 82.
(1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264, 746 – 748.
(1974). The anatomical basis of prosopagnosia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 37, 489 – 501.
(2013). Matching face images taken on the same day or months apart: The limitations of photo ID. Applied cognitive Psychology, 27, 700 – 706.
(2009). Perceptual load manipulation reveals sensitivity of the face-selective N170 to attention. NeuroReport, 20, 782 – 787.
(1976). Early versus late stages of processing and their relation to functional hemispheric asymmetries in face recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2, 410 – 416.
(2012). Role of fusiform and anterior temporal cortical areas in facial recognition. NeuroImage, 63, 1743 – 1753.
(2000). Neuropsychological impairments in the recognition of faces, voices, and personal names. Brain and Cognition, 44, 342 – 366.
(2005). Do 15-month-old infants understand false beliefs? Science, 308, 255 – 258.
(1989). Long-term memory for unfamiliar voices. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 85, 913 – 925.
(1975). Differential hemispheric mediation of nonverbal visual stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 246 – 252.
(2003). Opening windows into the mind: Mothers preferences for mental state explanations and childrens theory of mind. Cognitive Development, 18, 399 – 429.
(2002). Perceiving affect from arm movement. Cognition, 82, B51-B61.
(1978). Does the chimpanzee have a Theory of Mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 515 – 526.
(2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 199 – 226.
(2006). Adaptive norm-based coding of facial identity. Vision Research, 46, 2977 – 2987.
(1971). Opposite superiorities of the right and left cerebral hemispheres in discriminative reaction time to physiognomical and alphabetical material. Brain, 94, 431 – 442.
(2013). Sensitive periods for the functional specialization of the neural system for human face processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110, 16760 – 16765.
(1998). Older (but not younger) siblings facilitate false belief understanding. Developmental Psychology, 34, 161 – 174.
(2009). Super-recognizers: People with extraordinary face recognition ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 252 – 257.
(2011). Squeeze me, but dont tease me: Human and mechanical touch enhance visual attention and emotion discrimination. Social Neuroscience, 6, 219 – 230.
(2012). Eye movements reveal sustained implicit processing of others mental states. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 141, 433 – 438.
(2014). Task instructions and implicit theory of mind. Cognition, 133, 43 – 47.
(2004). The facilitated processing of threatening faces: An ERP analysis. Emotion, 4, 189 – 200.
(2001). Human brain potential correlates of voice priming and voice recognition. Neuropsychologia, 39, 921 – 936.
(2011). Neurophysiological correlates of face recognition. In , The Handbook of Face Perception (pp. 345 – 366). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(2003). Covert recognition and the neural system for face processing. Cortex, 39, 9 – 30.
(2011). Person perception 25 years after Bruce and Young (1986). An introduction. British Journal of Psychology, 102, 695 – 703.
(2008). Auditory adaptation in voice perception. Current Biology, 18, 684 – 688.
(2014). Speaker perception. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews-Cognitive Science, 5, 15 – 25.
(1995). Covert face recognition in prosopagnosia–A dissociable function. Cortex, 31, 517 – 529.
(2011). Hearing facial identities: Brain correlates of face-voice integration in person identification. Cortex, 47, 1026 – 1037.
(1995). Repetition priming and associative priming of face recognition: Evidence from event-related potentials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 722 – 736.
(2002). Event-related brain potential evidence for a response of inferior temporal cortex to familiar face repetitions. Cognitive Brain Research, 14, 398 – 409.
(2007). Hearing facial identities. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1446 – 1456.
(2003). The perception of leadership competence by female and male leaders. Zeitschrift fur Sozialpsychologie, 34, 133 – 145.
(2009). Mindblind eyes: An absence of spontaneous Theory of Mind in Asperger Syndrome. Science, 325, 883 – 885.
(1992). Functional neuroanatomy of face and object processing. Brain, 115, 15 – 36.
(1983). Asymmetrical evoked potentials in response to face stimuli. Cortex, 19, 441 – 450.
(2007). Action anticipation through attribution of false belief by 2-year-olds. Psychological Science, 18, 587 – 592.
(2001). Recognizing faces of other ethnic groups–An integration of theories. Psychology Public Policy and Law, 7, 36 – 97.
(2008). Neural processing of vocal emotion and identity. Brain and Cognition, 69, 121 – 126.
(2012). Rapid and highly resolving: affective evaluation of olfactorily conditioned faces. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 17 – 27.
(1989). Lips, teeth, and the benefits of lipreading. In , Handbook of research on face processing (pp. 223 – 233). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
(2006). Activation of pre-existing and acquired face representations: The N250 event-related potential as an index of face familiarity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 1488 – 1497.
(1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46 A, 225 – 245.
(2009). Social cognition modulates the sensory coding of observed gaze direction. Current Biology, 19, 1274 – 1277.
(2010). Seeing other minds: Attributed mental states influence perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 376 – 382.
(2008). Comparing face patch systems in macaques and humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 19514 – 19519.
(2011). Covert face recognition without the fusiform-temporal pathways. NeuroImage, 57, 1162 – 1176.
(1987). Voice discrimination and recognition are separate abilities. Neuropsychologia, 25, 829 – 834.
(1982). Impairment of voice and face recognition in patients with hemispheric damage. Brain & Cognition, 1, 185 – 195.
(2012). The student′s guide to social neuroscience. Hove: Psychology Press.
(2007). Facial attractiveness modulates early and late event-related brain potentials. Biological Psychology, 76, 100 – 108.
(2007). Kinematic cues for person identification from biological motion. Perception & Psychophysics, 69, 241 – 253.
(2013). How experience shapes memory for faces: An event-related potential study on the own-age bias. Biological Psychology, 94, 369 – 379.
(2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17, 592 – 598.
(1983). Beliefs about beliefs–Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young childrens understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103 – 128.
(2012). Speech synthesis technologies for individuals with vocal disabilities: Voice banking and reconstruction. Acoustic Science & Technology, 33, 1 – 5.
(2011). Understanding person perception. British Journal of Psychology, 102, 959 – 974.
(1997). Facial expression megamix: Tests of dimensional and category accounts of emotion recognition. Cognition, 63, 271 – 313.
(2010). Voice aftereffects of adaptation to speaker identity. Hearing Research, 268, 38 – 45.
