The Role of Job Satisfaction, Job Ambivalence, and Emotions at Work in Predicting Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Abstract
Various mostly cross-sectional studies have established that job satisfaction is related to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). A major goal of the present study was to show that job ambivalence (i.e., the coexistence of positive and negative job evaluations) moderates the job satisfaction-OCB relationship. To this end, job satisfaction, job ambivalence, frequency of positive and negative emotions at work, dispositional positive and negative affectivity, and OCB were gathered from employees at time 1. About 2 months later, OCB was assessed by both peer-ratings and self-ratings. As predicted, the relationship between job satisfaction and both peer-rated and self-rated OCB was stronger the lower the experienced job ambivalence. Further findings showed that job satisfaction mediated the relationship between positive emotions and OCB, and that this indirect effect of positive emotions was conditional on low job ambivalence. Negative emotions, though negatively related to OCB, did not contribute to predicting OCB beyond positive emotions.
References
(1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
(2000). Ratings of organizational citizenship behavior: Does the source make a difference? Human Resource Management Review, 10, 97–114.
(1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
(1996). Meta-judgmental versus operative indexes of psychological attributes: The case of measures of attitude strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 686–695.
(2008). Attitude strength. In , Attitudes and attitude change (pp. 237–260). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
(1983). Job satisfaction and the good soldier: The relationship between affect and employee “Citizenship”. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 587–595.
(2005). An episodic process model of affective influences on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1054–1068.
(1993). Construct validity of three types of organizational citizenship behavior: An illustration of the direct product model with refinements. Journal of Management, 19, 663–682.
(1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: Wiley.
(2010). A model for judgments of work values and job satisfaction. Psychological Reports, 107, 405–414.
(2010). Effects of job satisfaction and conscientiousness on extra-role behaviors. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 119–130.
(2008). A meta-analytic examination of the construct validity of the Michigan organizational assessment questionnaire job satisfaction subscale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 63–77.
(1998). Attitudes in and around organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
(2002). Affect in the workplace. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 279–307.
(1994). Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 401–423.
(1983). Michigan organizational assessment questionnaire. In , Assessing organizational change: A guide to methods, measures, and practices (pp. 71–138). New York, NY: Wiley-Interscience.
(2006). Emotion as mediators of the relations between perceived supervisor support and psychological hardiness on employee cynicism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 463–484.
(2002). Ambivalence and attitudes. In , European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 37–70). New York, NY: Wiley.
(2002). Moderator effects of attitudinal ambivalence on attitude-behaviour relationships. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 705–718.
(2004). Moderation of cognition-intention and cognition-behaviour relations: A meta-analysis of properties of variables from the theory of planned behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 159–186.
(2006). Attitudes and persuasions. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 345–374.
(2005). A meta-analysis of the relationship between organizational citizenship behaviour and counterproductive work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1241–1255.
(1991). Happiness is the frequency, not the intensity, of positive versus negative affect. In , Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 119–139). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
(2001). Job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of stabilities. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 483–504.
(1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
(1998). Attitude structure and function. In , The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 269–322). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
(2007). Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12, 1–22.
(1995). Attitude strength: An overview. In , Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 433–454). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1986). How do attitudes guide behavior. In , The handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (pp. 204–243). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
(1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behaviour: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
(2000). Mood and emotions while working: Missing pieces of job satisfaction? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 185–202.
(2002). Antecedents and consequences of real-time affective reactions at work. Motivation and Emotion, 26, 3–30.
(2008). Job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB): Does team commitment make a difference in self-directed teams? Management Decision, 46, 933–947.
(1993). The place of appraisal in emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 357–387.
. (2005, August, 25). Most workers are positive, but one-third love their jobs. Abstract retrieved May 28, 2008, from www.gallup.com/poll/18109/Most-Workers-Positive-OneThird-Love-Their-Jobs.aspx
(1991). State or trait: Effects of positive mood on prosocial behaviors at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 299–307.
(1992). Feeling good-doing good: A conceptual analysis of the mood at work-organizational spontaneity relationship. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 310–329.
(2011). Doing good, feeling good: Examining the role of organizational citizenship behaviors in changing mood. Personnel Psychology, 64, 191–223.
(1996). Assessing the non-random sampling effects of subject attrition in longitudinal research. Journal of Management, 22, 627–652.
(2012). Statistical mediation analysis with a multi categorical independant variable. Manuscript submitted for publication.
(2007). Expanding the criterion domain? A quantitative review of the OCB literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 555–566.
(2004). An experience-sampling measure of job satisfaction and its relationships with affectivity, mood at work, job beliefs, and general job satisfaction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 13, 367–389.
(1972). Effects of feeling good on helping: Cookies and kindness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 384–388.
(2000a). Attitudinal ambivalence. In , European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 35–74). New York, NY: Wiley.
(2000b). Experienced ambivalence as a moderator of the consistency between attitudes and behaviors. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 31, 153–165.
(2007). Attitudinal ambivalence. In , The scope of social psychology: Theory and applications (pp. 29–42). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
(2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376–407.
(1999). Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
(1972). On the ambivalence-indifference problem in attitude theory and measurement: A suggested modification of the semantic differential technique. Psychological Bulletin, 77, 361–372.
(2009). On the role of positive and negative affectivity in job performance: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 162–176.
(2009). A note on the relationship between affect(ivity) and differing conceptualizations of job satisfaction: Some unexpected meta-analytic findings. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18, 29–54.
(1964). The motivational basis of organizational behavior. Behavioral Science, 9, 131–146.
(1996). Expectancy-based job cognitions and job affect as predictors of organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 635–651.
(1995). Attitudes and the prediction of behavior: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 58–75.
(1996). Untersuchungen mit einer deutschen Version der “Positive and Negative Affect Schedule” (PANAS).
Studies with the German version of the “Positive and Negative Affect Schedule” (PANAS) . Diagnostica, 42, 139–156.(1995). Attitude strength: An overview. In , Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 1–24). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1955). The construction of a new type of attitude measure. Personnel Psychology, 9, 65–78.
(2002). Organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance: The role of affect and cognitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 131–142.
(2002). The nature and dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior: A critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 52–65.
(2008). The role of other orientation in organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29, 829–841.
(2009). Ambivalence versus valence: Analyzing the effects of opposing attitudes. Social Cognition, 27, 89–104.
(1995). Applied logistic regression analysis: Sage university series on quantitative applications in the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
(2004). Linking work events, affective states, and attitudes: An empirical study of managers’ emotions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19, 221–240.
(1974). Expectancy models of job satisfaction, occupational preference and effort: A theoretical, methodological, and empirical appraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 1053–1077.
(1993). The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Human Relations, 46, 759–776.
(2008). The relationship of age to ten dimensions of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 392–423.
(2010). Organizational tenure and job performance. Journal of Management, 36, 1220–1250.
(1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
(1997). Organizational citizenship behaviour: It’s construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 10, 85–97.
(1989). Cognitive versus affective determinants of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 157–164.
(1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 48, 775–802.
(1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36, 859–866.
(2007). The role of metacognition in social judgment. In , Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 254–284). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
. (1995). Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
(1997). Impact of organizational citizenship behavior on organizational performance: A review and suggestions for future research. Human Performance, 10, 133–151.
(2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.
(2009). Individual- and organizational-level consequences of organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 122–141.
(2007). Assessing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227.
(2006). Self-esteem and self-ambivalence. Current Psychology, 25, 192–211.
(1997). Affect intensity: Separating intensity and frequency in repeatedly measured affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1313–1329.
(2004). Reexamining the job satisfaction-performance relationship: The complexity of attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 165–177.
(2008). Affective and cognitive meta-bases of attitudes: Unique effects on information interest and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 938–955.
(2010). Common method bias in regression models with linear, quadratic, and interaction effects. Organizational Research Methods, 13, 456–476.
(1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Pychology, 68, 653–663.
(2002). An emotion-centered model of voluntary work behaviour. Some parallels between counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behaviour. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 269–292.
(2000). Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Entwicklung und erste Validierung eines Messinstruments. Diagnostica, 46, 73–83.
(1990). Memory accuracy in the recall of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 291–297.
(1995). The conflicted individual: Personality-based and domain specific antecedents of ambivalent social attitudes. Journal of Personality, 63, 259–288.
(1995). Let’s not be indifferent about (attitudinal) ambivalence. In , Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 361–386). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
(2003). The affective underpinning of job perceptions and attitudes: A meta-analytic review and integration. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 914–945.
(2008). The moderator effect that wasn’t there: Statistical problems in ambivalence research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 774–794.
(2000). Using the job-related affective well-being scale (JAWS) to investigate affective responses to work stressors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 219–230.
(2010). Salespersons’ self-monitoring: Direct, indirect, and moderating effects on salespersons’ organizational citizenship behavior. Psychology & Marketing, 27, 71–89.
(1997). Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 247–252.
(1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490.
(1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
(1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219–235.
(1980). Job satisfaction in the United States in the 1970 s. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 364–367.
(1967). Manual for the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.
(2002). Deconstructing job satisfaction: Separating evaluations, beliefs and affective experiences. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 173–194.
(1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. In , Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 18, pp. 1–74). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
(1999). An examination of the joint effects of affective experiences and job beliefs on job satisfaction and variations in affective experiences over time. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 78, 1–24.
(1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17, 601–617.
(2012). Relationship between job satisfaction and job performance: Job ambivalence as a moderator. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42, 2019–2040. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00929.x
(2011, September). Was führt dazu, dass Beschäftigte ihre Arbeit gleichzeitig gut und schlecht finden? Kognitive und affektive Determinanten des Erlebens von Ambivalenz bezüglich der eigenen Arbeit.
[What leads employees to both like and dislike their job? Cognitive and affective determinants of experienced job ambivalence] . Paper presented at the 7th Meeting of the Section Work, Organisational, and Business Psychology of the German Psychological Society, Rostock.
