Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article

Gender Differences in the Intention to Start a Business

An Updated and Extended Meta-Analysis

Published Online:February 04, 2021https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000435

Abstract

Abstract. The present study updates and extends the meta-analysis by Haus et al. (2013) who applied the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to analyze gender differences in the motivation to start a business. We extend this meta-analysis by investigating the moderating role of the societal context in which the motivation to start a business emerges and proceeds. The results, based on 119 studies analyzing 129 samples with 266,958 individuals from 36 countries, show smaller gender differences than the original study and reveal little differences across cultural regions in the effects of the tested model. A meta-regression analyzing the role of specific cultural dimensions and economic factors on gender-related correlations reveals significant effects only of gender egalitarianism and in the opposite direction as expected. In summary, the study contributes to the discussion on gender differences, the importance of study replications and updates of meta-analyses, and the generalizability of theories across cultural contexts.

References

  • Aguinis, H., Gottfredson, R. K., & Wright, T. A. (2011). Best-practice recommendations for estimating interaction effects using meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 1033–1043. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.719 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 665–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1559-1816.2002.Tb00236.X First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Allen, E. I., Elam, A., Langowitz, N., & Dean, M. (2008). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2007: Report on women and entrepreneurship, Babson College. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Antonakis, J., Bendahan, S., Jacquart, P., & Lalive, R. (2010). On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 1086–1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.010 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471–499. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601164939 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Badura, K. L., Grijalva, E., Galvin, B. M., Owens, B. P., & Joseph, D. L. (2020). Motivation to lead: A meta-analysis and distal-proximal model of motivation and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(4), 331. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000439 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Begg, C. B., & Mazumdar, M. (1994). Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics, 50, 1088–1101. https://doi.org/10.2307/2533446 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0601_1 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (2011). Evolutionary psychology and feminism. Sex Roles, 64(9), 768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9987-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Schafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Carey, T. A., Flanagan, D. J., & Palmer, T. B. (2010). An examination of university student entrepreneurial intentions by type of venture. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 15(4), 503–517. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1084946710001622 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Carter, N. M., Gartner, W. B., Shaver, K. G., & Gatewood, E. J. (2003). The career reasons of nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 13–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(02)00078-2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cheung, M. W. L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: A structural equation modeling approach. Psychological Methods, 19(2), 211–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032968 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cheung, M. W. L. (2015). Meta-analysis: A structural equation modeling approach, Wiley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Costa, P. T. J., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(2), 322–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.322 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cowling, M., & Bygrave, W. D. (2006). Entrepreneurship, welfare provision, and unemployment: Relationships between unemployment, welfare provisions, and entrepreneurship in thirty-seven nations participating in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2002. Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal, 28, 617–635. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Diener, E., Tay, L., & Oishi, S. (2013). Rising income and the subjective well-being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(2), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030487 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Druckman, J. N., & Kam, C. D. (2011). Students as experimental participants: A defense of the “Narrow Data Base”. In J. N. DruckmanD. P. GreenJ. H. KuklinskiA. LupiaEds., Cambridge handbook of experimental political science (pp. 41–57). Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Duval, S. J., & Tweedie, R. L. (2000). A nonparametric “trim and fill” method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 95, 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.2000.10473905 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation, Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2013a). The nature–nurture debates: 25 years of challenges in understanding the psychology of gender. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 340–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613484767 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2013b). Feminism and evolutionary psychology: Moving forward. Sex Roles, 69(9–10), 549–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0315-y First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Egger, M., Davey Smith, G., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal, 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Elwert, F., & Winship, C. (2014). Endogenous selection bias: The problem of conditioning on a collider variable. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043455 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Emrich, C. G., Denmark, F. L., & den Hartog, D. N. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in gender egalitarianism. Implications for societies, organizations, and leaders. In R. J. HouseP. HangesM. JavidanP. W. DorfmanV. GuptaEds., Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 343–394). Sage. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Falk, A., & Hermle, J. (2018). Relationship of gender differences in preferences to economic development and gender equality. Science, 362(6412), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aas9899 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Prediction and change of behavior: The reasoned action approach, Psychology Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gorgievski, M. J., Stephan, U., Laguna, M., & Moriano, J. A. (2018). Predicting entrepreneurial career intentions: Values and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Career Assessment, 26(3), 457–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072717714541 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gupta, V., Hanges, P. J., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Cultural clusters: Methodology and findings. Journal of World Business, 37, 11–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00070-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gupta, V. K., Turban, D. B., Wasti, S. A., & Sikdar, A. (2009). The role of gender stereotypes in perceptions of entrepreneurs and intentions to become an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(2), 397–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00296.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Haus, I., Steinmetz, H., Isidor, R., & Kabst, R. (2013). Gender effects on entrepreneurial intention: A meta-analytical structural equation model. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5(2), 130–156. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261311328828 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hausmann, R., Tyson, L., Bekhouche, Y., & Zahidi, S. (2012). The global gender gap report. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR12/MainChapter_GGGR12.pdf First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Highhouse, S., & Gillespie, J. Z. (2009). Do samples really matter that much?. In C. E. LanceR. J. VandenbergEds., Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 247–265). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values, Sage. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hofstede, G. (2006). What did globe really measure? Researchers’ minds versus respondents’ minds. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 882–896. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400233 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies, Sage. https://globe.bus.sfu.ca/ First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • House, R., Javidan, M., & Dorfman, P. (2001). Project GLOBE: An introduction. Applied Psychology, 50(4), 489–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00070 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37, 3–10. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hughes, K. (2006). Exploring motivation and success among Canadian women entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 19(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2006.10593362 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies, Princeton University Press. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jakob, E. A., Isidor, R., Steinmetz, H., Wehner, M. C., & Kabst, R. (2019). The other side of the same coin – How communal beliefs about entrepreneurship influence attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112, 431–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.12.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Javidan, M., House, R. J., Dorfman, P. W., Hanges, P. J., & Sully de Luque, M. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring cultures and their consequences: A comparative review of GLOBE’s and Hofstede’s approaches. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 897–914. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400234 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Krueger, N. F. Jr., & Brazeal, D. V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18, 91–104. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1505244 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Krueger, N. F. Jr., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15, 411–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lakens, D., Hilgard, J., & Staaks, J. (2016). On the reproducibility of meta-analyses: Six practical recommendations. BMC Psychology, 4(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-016-0126-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lakens, D. (2017). Equivalence tests: A practical primer for t tests, correlations, and meta-analyses. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(4), 355–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617697177 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., & Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(10), e1–e34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.006 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mac Giolla, E., & Kajonius, P. J. (2019). Sex differences in personality are larger in gender equal countries: Replicating and extending a surprising finding. International Journal of Psychology, 54(6), 705–711. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nowiński, W., & Haddoud, M. Y. (2019). The role of inspiring role models in enhancing entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Business Research, 96, 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • OECD. (2020). OECD employment outlook 2020: Worker security and the COVID-19 Crisis, https://doi.org/10.1787/1686c758-en First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Parboteeah, K. P., Hoegl, M., & Cullen, J. B. (2008). Managers’ gender role attitudes: A country institutional profile approach. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(5), 795–813. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400384 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pines, A. M., Lerner, M., & Schwartz, D. (2010). Gender differences in entrepreneurship. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 29(2), 186–198. https://doi.org/10.1108/02610151011024493 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • R Core Team. (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Reynolds, P. D., Bygrave, W. D., Autio, E., Cox, L. W., & Hay, M. (2002). Global entrepreneurship monitor: 2002 Executive report, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Reynolds, P. D.Curtin, R. T. (Eds.) (2010). New business creation: An international overview, Vol. 27. Springer Science & Business Media. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Roth, B., Becker, N., Romeyke, S., Schäfer, S., Domnick, F., & Spinath, F. M. (2015). Intelligence and school grades: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 53, 118–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.09.002 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Salimath, M. S., & Cullen, J. B. (2010). Formal and informal institutional effects on entrepreneurship: A synthesis of nation-level research. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 18(3), 358–385. https://doi.org/10.1108/19348831011062175 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schlaegel, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Determinants of entrepreneurial intent: A meta-analytic test and integration of competing models. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 38(2), 291–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12087 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schmitt, D. P., Long, A. E., McPhearson, A., O’Brien, K., Remmert, B., & Shah, S. H. (2016). Personality and gender differences in global perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 52, 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12265 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schneid, M., Isidor, R., Li, C., & Kabst, R. (2015). The influence of cultural context on the relationship between gender diversity and team performance: A meta-analysis. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(6), 733–756. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2014.957712 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schwens, C., Zapkau, F. B., Bierwerth, M., Isidor, R., Knight, G., & Kabst, R. (2018). International entrepreneurship: A meta-analysis on the internationalization and performance relationship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 42(5), 734–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258718795346 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Shea, A., Ross, N., & Haymann, S. J. (2007). Trade, inequalities, and health: Making the important measurable. In C. BlouinN. DragerJ. HeymannEds., Trade and health: Seeking common ground. McGill-Queen’s Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Shinnar, R. S., Giacomin, O., & Janssen, F. (2012). Entrepreneurial perceptions and intentions: The role of gender and culture. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 36(3), 465–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00509.x First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Shirokova, G., Osiyevskyy, O., & Bogatyreva, K. (2016). Exploring the intention–behavior link in student entrepreneurship: Moderating effects of individual and environmental characteristics. European Management Journal, 34(4), 386–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2015.12.007 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Soubbotina, T. P. (2004). Beyond economic growth: An introduction to sustainable development, The World Bank. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Steinmetz, H., Isidor, R., & Bosnjak, M. (2020). Meta-analytische Strukturgleichungsmodelle: Potenziale und Grenzen illustriert an einem Beispiel aus der Organisationspsychologie.[Meta-analytical structural equation models: Potentials and limitations illustrated by an example from organisational psychology] Psychologische Rundschau, 71, 111–118. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042/a000483 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Steinmetz, H., Knappstein, M., Ajzen, I., Schmidt, P., & Kabst, R. (2016). How effective are behavior change interventions based on the theory of planned behavior? A three-level meta-analysis. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 224(3), 216–233. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000255 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Stoet, G., & Geary, D. C. (2020). The gender-equality paradox is part of a bigger phenomenon: Reply to Richardson and colleagues (2020). Psychological Science, 31(3), 342–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620904134 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Taras, V., Rowney, J., & Steel, P. (2009). Half a century of measuring culture: Review of approaches, challenges, and limitations based on the analysis of 121 instruments for quantifying culture. Journal of International Management, 15(4), 357–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2008.08.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • The World Bank, World Development Indicators. (2020). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate). http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Thompson, S. G., & Sharp, S. J. (1999). Explaining heterogeneity in meta-analysis: A comparison of methods. Statistics in Medicine, 18, 2693–2708. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19991030)18:20<2693::aid-sim235>3.0.co;2-v First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in global business, Irwin Professional Publishing. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Verick, S. (2018). Female labor force participation and development, IZA World of Labor, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA). First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wilson, S. J., Polanin, J. R., & Lipsey, M. W. (2016). Fitting meta-analytic structural equation models with complex datasets. Research Synthesis Methods, 7(2), 121–139. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1199 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zaremohzzabieh, Z., Ahrari, S., Krauss, S. E., Samah, A. B. A., Meng, L. K., & Ariffin, Z. (2019). Predicting social entrepreneurial intention: A meta-analytic path analysis based on the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Business Research, 96, 264–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.030 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar