Social Determinants of the Mental Health of Young Migrants
Abstract
Abstract.Background: Young migrants face particular risks to develop mental health problems. Discrimination and social support impact mental health, yet little is known about the differential impact thereof on mental health in newcomers, non-newcomer migrants, and non-migrants. Aim: This study sheds light on mental health (posttraumatic stress, behavioral problems, hyperactivity, emotional distress, peer relationship problems, prosocial behavior) and the overall well-being of newcomers, non-newcomer migrants, and non-migrants. Furthermore, the impact of social support and discrimination on mental health is investigated. Method: Descriptive analysis and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) were applied to analyze responses of 2,320 adolescents through self-report questionnaires in Finland, Sweden, and the UK. Results: Newcomers, non-newcomer migrants, and non-migrants have different psychological profiles. While newcomers suffer more from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and peer problems, non-newcomers and non-migrants report more hyperactivity. Discrimination strongly threatens all mental health dimensions, while support from family serves as a protective factor. Support from friends has a positive impact on PTSD among newcomers. Limitations: As this study has a cross-sectional design, conclusions about causality cannot be drawn. In addition, history of traumatic life events or migration trajectory was lacking, while it may impact mental health. Conclusion: Different mental health profiles of newcomers, non-newcomer migrants, and non-migrants point to the need for a tailored and diversified approach. Discrimination remains a risk factor for mental health, while family support is a protective factor for adolescents. Interventions that foster social support from friends would be especially beneficial for newcomers.
References
2019). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The prevalence of mental illness in child and adolescent refugees and asylum seekers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(6), 705–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.11.011
(2013). Association between perceived discrimination and racial/ethnic disparities in problem behaviors among preadolescent youths. American Journal of Public Health, 103, 1074–1081. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301073
(2011). Rumination partially mediates the associations between perceived ethnic discrimination, emotional distress, and aggression. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 217, 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023357
(2005). The Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire: Development and preliminary validation of a community version. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 335–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02124.x
(2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Press.
(2018). Perceived discrimination, language proficiencies, and adaptation: Comparisons between refugee and non-refugee immigrant youth in Australia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 63, 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.10.006
(2000). Psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support in urban adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(3), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005109522457
(2014). Perceived racial discrimination, acculturative stress, and psychological distress among Asian immigrants: The moderating effects of support and interpersonal strain from a partner. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 42, 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.04.003
(2016). The mental health and wellbeing of first generation migrants: A systematic-narrative review of reviews. Globalization & Health, 12, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-016-0187-3
(2000). Ethnicity-related sources of stress and their effects on well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(4), 136–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00078
(2016). The longitudinal associations between discrimination, depressive symptoms, and prosocial behaviors in US Latino/a recent immigrant adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(3), 457–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0394-x
(2000). Children in adversity. Forced Migration Review, 9(4), 33–36.
(2020).
(Family relationships and intra-family expectations in unaccompanied young . In L. De HaeneC. RousseauEds., Working with refugee families. Trauma and exile in family relationships (pp. 103–116). Cambridge University Press.2008). Emotional and behavioral problems in migrant adolescents in Belgium. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 54–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-0636-x
(2018). The impact and long-term effects of childhood trauma. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 28(3), 381–392.
(2012). Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in high-income countries: Risk and protective factors. Lancet, 379, 266–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60051-2
(2010). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(3), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020026
(2020). Trauma, resilience, and mental health in migrant and non-migrant youth: An international cross-sectional study across six countries. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, Article 997. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00997
(2001). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1337–1345. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015
(2006). Exploring the links between posttraumatic stress disorder and social support: Processes and potential research avenues. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20124
(2017). “What kept me going”: A qualitative study of avoidant responses to war-related adversity and perpetration of violence by former forcibly recruited children and youth in the Acholi region of northern Uganda. Social Science & Medicine, 188, 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.07.007
(2013). Migrant density and well-being – A national school survey of 15-year-olds in Sweden. The European Journal of Public Health, 23(5), 823–828. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckt106
(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
(2001). Health issues among Filipino women in remote Queensland. Australian Journal of Rural Health, 9, 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1038-5282.2001.00342.x
(2005). Postmigration living problems and common psychiatric disorders in Iraqi asylum seekers in the Netherlands. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 193, 825–832. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000188977.44657.1d
(2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: Scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 407–440. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728
(2012). LimeSurvey: An Open Source Survey Tool. http://limesurvey.org
. (2004). Review of child and adolescent refugee mental health. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 24–36. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200401000-00012
(2004). Somali women and well-being: Social networks and social capital among immigrant women in Australia. Human Organization, 63, 88–99. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.63.1.nwlpjdj4d4l9756l
(2021). Child and young migrants. https://migrationdataportal.org/themes/child-and-young-migrants
. (2017). The mental health of civilians displaced by armed conflict: An ecological model of refugee distress. Epidemiology & Psychiatric Sciences, 26, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796016000172
(2010). Trauma and resilience in young refugees: A 9-year follow-up study. Development & Psychopathology, 22, 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579410000180
(2009). Perceived discrimination and substance use among Latino adolescents. American Journal of Health Behavior, 33, 718–727. https://doi.org/10.5993/ajhb.33.6.9
(2011). Chicana/o students respond to Arizona’s anti-ethnic studies bill, SB 1108: Civic engagement, ethnic identity, and well-being. Aztlan, 36(1), 9–36.
(2005). The Children’s Revised Impact of Event Scale (CRIES): Validity as a screening instrument for PTSD. Behavioral & Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33, 487–498. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1352465805002419
(2005). Predisplacement and postdisplacement factors associated with mental health of refugees and internally displaced persons: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294(5), 602–612. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.5.602
(2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
(2016). Do spouses matter? Discrimination, social support, and psychological distress among Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000045
(1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. Wiley.
(2019). Trauma, post-migration stress, and mental health: A comparative analysis of refugees and immigrants in the United States. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 21(5), 909–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-018-0826-2
(2021). A systematic review of socio-ecological factors contributing to risk and protection of the mental health of refugee children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 83, Article 101930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101930
(2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis: A review. Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338
(2001). The role of family and friend social support in reducing emotional distress among HIV-positive women. AIDS Care, 13, 335–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120120043982
(2010). Determinants of mental health for newcomer youth: Policy and service implications. Canadian Issues, Summer, 98–102.
(2021). Mental health of refugee and non-refugee migrant young people in European secondary education: The role of family separation, daily material stress and discrimination in resettlement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Advance online article. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01515-y
(2008). Multicultural meanings of social support among immigrants and refugees. International Migration, 46, 123–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2008.00464.x
(2010). Academic trajectories of newcomer immigrant youth. Developmental Psychology, 46, 602–618. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018201
(2011). Mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45, 1–67. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v045.i03
(2020). The impact of avoidant/disengagement coping and social support on the mental health of adolescent victims of sexual violence in eastern Congo. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Article 382. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00382
(2014). Longitudinal follow-up of the mental health of unaccompanied refugee minors. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0463-1
(2017). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and mental health: A review and future directions for social epidemiology. Current Epidemiology Reports, 4(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-017-0106-z
(2020). School-aged Syrian refugees resettling in Canada: Mitigating the effect of pre-migration trauma and post-migration discrimination on academic achievement and psychological well-being. Journal of International Migration & Integration, 21, 397–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-019-00665-0
(2001). Emerging paradigms in the mental health care of refugees. Social Science & Medicine, 52, 1709–1718. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00284-7
(2012). Perceived discrimination and psychological well-being in the USA and South Africa. Ethnicity & Health, 17, 111–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2012.654770
(2005). Ethnic identity and approach-type coping as moderators of the racial discrimination/well-being relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4), 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.497
(2017). Continuity and discontinuity between psychopathology of childhood and adulthood: A review on retrospective and prospective studies. Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process, and Outcome, 20(2), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.4081/ripppo.2017.248
(1988). The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
(