Machiavellian Leader Effectiveness
The Moderating Role of Political Skill
Abstract
Abstract. Research on the effectiveness of Machiavellian leaders has found contradictory results. By linking socioanalytic and trait activation theory to the Machiavellianism and leadership literature, we argue that political skill may explain these findings by moderating the relation between Machiavellianism and leadership effectiveness. Using a multisource design and moderated mediation analyses with 153 leaders, 287 subordinates, and 153 superiors, we show that leaders who are both strongly politically skilled and high on Machiavellianism successfully enact transformational leadership, mediating improved leader effectiveness. However, when leader political skill is low, high Machiavellianism is negatively associated with (subordinate-rated) transformational leadership, resulting in lower leader effectiveness ratings by superiors. We discuss these results in light of current research on Machiavellianism in leadership and work contexts.
Niccolò Machiavelli, an influential political theorist of the Renaissance, argued that politics is amoral and that rational politicians could use any means, however unscrupulous, to achieve and retain power. Using a set of statements from Machiavelli's political theory, Christie and Geis (1970) created an assessment of individual differences in Machiavellianism, and Dahling et al. (2009, p. 219) defined trait Machiavellianism as the tendency to “distrust others, engage in amoral manipulation, seek control over others, and seek status for oneself.” Some evidence suggests that persons high on Machiavellianism can be successful at obtaining that higher status (Spurk et al., 2016).
However, previous research on the impact of Machiavellian leaders has found some contradictory results concerning leadership effectiveness. In a study of 120 outstanding 20th century leaders from business, political, military, and religious institutions, Bedell et al. (2006) found that Machiavellianism was positively related to undesirable leadership outcomes for eight of the 12 criteria. On the other hand, Machiavellians sometimes are described as charismatic (Deluga, 2001), and Machiavellian presidents have had more legislative victories during their tenure in office (Simonton, 1986).
Our research addresses this inconsistency in leadership effectiveness, first, by including a key component for how Machiavellian leaders convert their status- and control-seeking desires into behaviors positively evaluated by subordinates and followers at work: work-related social skill (i.e., political skill). According to socioanalytic theory, social skill translates goal aspirations into action, and dispositions toward selfishness, treachery, and deceit can coexist with high social skill (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). Second, trait activation theory argues for the importance of a relevant context (e.g., leadership) to the activation of competencies like political skill (Tett et al. 2013). By empirically linking these two theoretical structures to Machiavellianism, our research offers evidence that strong political skill allows Machiavellian leaders to engage in transformational behaviors, resulting in greater effectiveness (Judge & Piccolo, 2004).
Our model (see Figure 1) echoes calls by leadership researchers to further investigate the characteristics and behaviors related to leader effectiveness (Derue et al., 2011). Derue et al. postulate transformational leader behaviors as a mediator of the effect of leader political skill on leadership effectiveness, but their model does not include “dark” leader personality (e.g., Machiavellianism). Our study not only investigates particular relationships between each major Derue et al. theme of leader traits, behaviors (i.e., transformational), and outcomes (i.e., effectiveness), but also expands the model to include the impact of dark personality (i.e., Machiavellianism) moderated by political skill. Consequently, our research additionally follows the specific call to examine how leader dark traits affect leader behaviors and outcomes (Furtner et al., 2017). We use “Machiavellian” to signify individuals high on Machiavellianism, and we argue that strongly politically skilled Machiavellian leaders engage in greater transformational leadership, leading to improved leader effectiveness.
Theoretical Background
Machiavellians have a strong motivation to lead (Mael et al., 2001) and to seek out management positions that allow them to control resources and individuals (Dahling et al., 2009). Their inherent distrust and cynicism permits amoral manipulation to achieve goals.
Some prior studies found that subordinates of Machiavellian leaders report more abusive supervision (Kiazad et al., 2010; Wisse & Sleebos, 2016), show more signs of increased emotional exhaustion and reduced career satisfaction (Volmer et al., 2016), and behave more counterproductively (Belschak et al., 2018). Furthermore, the positive effect of ethical leadership on subordinates' engagement and work behavior was lower for highly Machiavellian leaders (Den Hartog & Belschak, 2012).
On the other hand, when it is advantageous, Machiavellians can be cooperative, trustworthy, and adept at forming coalitions (Hawley, 2003). Moreover, they will demonstrate ethical behaviors (Schepers, 2003). When the goal is self-enhancement or impression management, Machiavellians try to refrain from behaving deceitfully and destructively by using prosocial interpersonal approaches (e.g., OCB; Belschak et al., 2015).
However, a willingness to strategically cooperate does not necessarily coincide with the Machiavellian's ability to do so (Jones, 2014), and empirical studies indicate that Machiavellians tend to describe themselves as impulsive, careless, and undisciplined (Miller et al., 2017). Thus, for the Machiavellian, strategic leadership requires refraining from short-term opportunism by using social skill to effectively control and lead followers “by counseling, persuading, explaining, and suggesting” (Hogan & Shelton, 1998, p. 135).
Socioanalytic theory argues that social skill promotes the translation of interpersonally directed aspirations into purposeful and successful action (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). There is widespread evidence establishing a particular kind of social skill (i.e., political skill) as a critical workplace social competency (Munyon et al., 2015). Due to their acute understanding of others and social interactions, their ability to appear sincere and trustworthy, and their unmatched behavioral versatility, politically skilled individuals appropriately frame and package their behaviors to be well-received by others (Kranefeld et al., 2020).
Moreover, we contend that a leadership role provides the context for the activation of transformational leadership in the politically skilled Machiavellian. The characteristics of transformational leader behaviors are articulating an inspiring vision to subordinates, fostering inspirational motivation in followers, intellectually challenging the status quo, and providing individualized consideration to followers (Bass & Avolio, 1995). The concept of transformational leadership can also include those leaders with dark personality traits (O'Reilly & Chatman, 2020).
According to the revised trait activation theory (Tett et al., 2013), political skill should have greater effects in contexts that call for individuals to control, manipulate, and influence others (Smith & Webster, 2017). Recent research has found that job demands, such as workgroup leadership (i.e., enterprising demands; Holland, 1997), behaviorally activate political skill in dark personalities (Kholin et al., 2020), and we suggest that this has implications for Machiavellian leaders' effective use of transformational behaviors.
Various meta-analyses have demonstrated the predictive validity of transformational leadership above and beyond other leadership styles (e.g., Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Wang et al., 2011). Given the strong desire to control and influence others to achieve heightened status, this highly successful leadership style that maintains the leader's elevated status should be very appealing to Machiavellians. Additionally, many other leadership styles require leaders to treat leadership as an exchange (e.g., transactional leadership; Bass, 1985) or submit to follower needs (e.g., servant leadership; Liden et al., 2008). Such behaviors are counter to Machiavellian motivations to engage in unfair social exchange and maintain elevated status (Dahling et al., 2009). Consequently, we believe transformational behaviors will be particularly attractive to Machiavellian leaders.
However, with low political skill, it is likely that Machiavellian leaders will not be seen as transformational leaders due to their abusive and unethical behavior, resulting in greatly reduced leader effectiveness. However, a highly politically skilled Machiavellian leader should be more capable of recognizing the strategic social advantage of being seen as transformational and implementing such behaviors. Prior research has found that politically skilled leaders enact transformational leadership (i.e., Ewen et al., 2013) and that they foster inspirational motivation in followers by articulating an inspiring vision (i.e., Wihler et al., 2016). Additionally, political skill has moderated relationships both meta-analytically across various outcomes (e.g., Munyon et al., 2015) and specifically in a leader context (e.g., Blickle et al., 2013). Therefore, we argue that highly politically skilled Machiavellian leaders will display transformational leadership behaviors (see Figure 1):
Leader political skill will moderate the relation between leader Machiavellianism and leader transformational leader behaviors. If political skill is low, there will be a negative relation between Machiavellianism and leader transformational leader behaviors. If leader political skill is high, there will be a positive relation between Machiavellianism and leader transformational leader behaviors.
Politically skilled transformational leaders have been shown to be more effective. Specifically, prior studies demonstrate that political skill relates to transformational leadership, which mediates leadership effectiveness (i.e., Blickle et al., 2014; Ewen et al., 2013; Wihler et al., 2016). Furthermore, leadership situations behaviorally activate political skill in dark personalities (Kholin et al., 2020), and highly politically skilled Machiavellians' career behaviors follow long-term career goals (Blickle et al., 2020).
Therefore, the politically skilled Machiavellian's transformational leadership should be seen by superiors, since transformational leader behaviors have meta-analytically related to team and organization performance (Wang et al., 2011). Additionally, across many studies, political skill has associated with various group- and organization-level criteria, as well as supervisor-rated performance (Munyon et al., 2015). Furthermore, similar to the present study, prior research found support for a moderated mediation model where political skill moderated the relationship between leader traits and behaviors, resulting in improved leader effectiveness (i.e., Ewen et al., 2014). As a result, leader effectiveness will be heightened by transformational leadership (Judge & Piccolo, 2004), and Machiavellianism will have a moderated mediation relationship with leader effectiveness.
There will be a first-stage moderated mediation relation between leader Machiavellianism and leader effectiveness moderated by leader political skill and mediated by leader transformational leader behaviors. At low levels of political skill, there will be a negative relation between leader Machiavellianism and leader effectiveness, mediated by leader inability to display transformational leader behaviors. At high levels of political skill, there will be a positive relation between leader Machiavellianism, leader transformational leader behaviors, and leader effectiveness.
Method
The design and sample of Blickle et al. (2018) offered the opportunity to test the present study's hypotheses using the same data set, without variable overlap (excluding gender and age). Moreover, as detailed below, a uniqueness analysis of each paper's contributions with reference to the theories used, research questions, constructs, and theoretical and practical implications supported the uniqueness of the current study (Kirkman & Chen, 2011).1
Based on the triarchic model of psychopathy (Patrick, 2018; boldness, disinhibition, and meanness) and trait activation theory, Blickle et al. (2018) investigated the behavioral activation of predatory psychopathy in managers. The study found that relevant situational cues, such as prospects for ascendancy and for increases in income, activate inconsiderate behaviors toward subordinates, which, in turn, result in decreased manager job performance. These effects were specific to the meanness dimension of psychopathy. Theoretically, the research helps to explain the mask of sanity (Cleckley, 1941) in psychopathic managers: appearing benign, except when situational cues activate predatory behavioral tendencies (meanness). Thus, organizations are well-advised to select managers with low meanness.
The current study, based on socioanalytic, trait activation, and political skill theories, addresses a different research question: How the inconsistency in Machiavellian leader effectiveness is explained by the activation of social competency (i.e., political skill) that results in transformational leader behaviors? Theoretically, the current study investigates whether high political skill promotes Machiavellian leader effectiveness. Consequently, Machiavellians could be successful transformational leaders if they also have excellent political skill.
Six hundred lower- to mid-level managers from a broad range of industries in Germany were invited by hypothesis-blind students to be study participants. After completing self-assessment, targets nominated their superior and at least two subordinates. All participants received e-mail invitations with randomly generated codes, preserving confidentiality and allowing for matching leader, subordinate, and superior responses. Our procedures adhered to the European Union's General Data Protection guidelines (https://eugdpr.org/), which created a setting for participants to respond candidly and freely, reducing concerns for range restriction. We received complete data from 317 target leaders, 211 superiors, and 389 subordinates. After eliminating 22 other-raters who were neither a subordinate nor superior and one set of data with no target response variation (i.e., respondent provided identical responses to all Machiavellianism items), our final sample consisted of unique (nonoverlapping) data from 134 leaders with one superior and two subordinate ratings, and 19 leaders with one superior and one subordinate rating. Including the respondent who provided identical values for all responses to Machiavellianism items did not significantly change the results (see the Electronic Supplementary Material [ESM 1]).
This final sample totaled 76 female and 77 male leaders, with an average age of 42.54 (SD = 10.54) years, with 54.9% having at least a bachelor-level degree. On average, leaders had 7.80 (SD = 7.84) years of experience in their position and had 12.00 (SD = 16.69) subordinates. Most participants worked in manufacturing (n = 35), trade and service (n = 34), public administrations (n = 34), social welfare (n = 20), or finance (n = 14); eight leaders each worked in communication and education. Their mean hierarchical level in the organization (100 = top level, 0 = bottom level) was 60.41 (SD = 20.20). Due to excluding leaders who could not obtain other-ratings, there was a potential for nonresponse. Consequently, we checked for, but did not find, any significant mean differences in Machiavellianism between leaders who obtained superior and subordinate ratings and those who did not. Finally, we compared all leaders who were part of our final sample (n = 153) to all leaders who were not (n = 164). There were no significant differences. In sum, we concluded that nonresponse bias was not a concern.
Measures
Machiavellianism
We used a German adaptation of the Machiavellian Personality Scale (Dahling et al., 2009; Zettler & Solga, 2013). Leaders responded to the 5-point scale with 16 items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample item is “I would cheat if there was a low chance of getting caught.” Cronbach's α was .87.
Political Skill
The cross-culturally validated German version of the Political Skill Inventory (Ferris et al., 2005; Lvina et al., 2012) was used. Superiors rated leader political skill on 18 items with a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sample item is “It is easy for this person to develop good rapport with most people.” Cronbach's α was .95.
Transformational Leadership
For transformational leadership, we used the corresponding 20 items of the German adaptation of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio, 1995; Felfe, 2006). Subordinates evaluated leader transformational leadership on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (frequently, if not always). A sample item is “The person whom I assess spends time teaching and coaching his or her employees.” For cases with two subordinate ratings, the correlation between the first and second raters was r = .37 (p < .001). Therefore, we aggregated the two ratings. Both ICC (ICC 1, k = 0.37, ICC 1, k = 0.54) and rWG (median rWG = .93) were in the normal range (Judge & Bono, 2000) and high enough to justify aggregation (LeBreton & Senter, 2008). Cronbach's α was .95.
Leader Effectiveness
Leader effectiveness was assessed with a scale used in various studies (e.g., Ewen et al., 2013). Superiors rated leader effectiveness in 12 activities (e.g., “leading a group at work” or “supervising others”) on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (much worse than other people in a comparable position) to 5 (much better than other people in a comparable position). Cronbach's α was .90.
Control Variables
In the regression analyses, control variables (CVs) included age and gender because both have associated with Machiavellianism and leadership outcomes (e.g., Eagly et al., 2003; Jonason & Davis, 2018; Ng & Feldman, 2008).
Statistical Analyses
First, we calculated the descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and Cronbach's α (see Table 1). To test our hypotheses, we then conducted hierarchical (moderated) regression analyses and bootstrapping procedures (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012) using SPSS 27 and Mplus 8. To avoid multicollinearity (Dawson, 2014), we z-standardized all predictors before testing our models.
For H1, we regressed subordinate-rated transformational leadership behaviors on Machiavellianism and political skill (Table 2: Model 1a). Next, we entered the interaction term (Table 2: Model 1b) and, finally, the CVs (Table 2: Model 1c). Our analysis examined the values of the moderator at which the slope coefficients would become significantly negative and positive using the Johnson–Neyman technique in Mplus (Hayes, 2015a). The critical test statistic for two-way interactions is ±1.96 above and below the mean of the z-standardized moderator variable (see Table 3). Specifically, the findings would support H1 if there is a negative slope at decreasing levels of political skill and a positive slope at increasing levels of political skill, within the range of ±1.96 z. We plotted the interaction effect at these two critical points, following Dawson (2014).
For the first-stage moderated mediation model in H2, we computed, in addition to the above-described moderation, a regression analysis, testing transformational leadership in prediction of leader effectiveness (Table 2: Model 2). Next, to test if the mediation effect varies across different values of the moderator, we assessed the index of moderated mediation (IMM; Hayes, 2015b). Then, we calculated the conditional indirect effects at the critical points of political skill in Mplus (both with 95% CIs based on 10,000 bootstrapped samples; Table 3). Additionally, we conducted all analyses with CVs.
Finally, we calculated the cumulative probability of finding significant effects in the regression analyses described (i.e., for the interaction effect, Model 1b, c, and the effect of transformational leader behaviors, Model 2). This probability estimates how likely a found significant effect would become equally significant in study replication. Although it should not be confused with replicability, it indicates the percentage of cases in which a p-value would become equally significant in a comparable design. Thus, we calculated the probability in accordance with Bliese and Wang (2020) in R using the obtained t-values of our regression analyses.
Results
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations. To assess the uniqueness and distinctiveness of our superior-rated scales (i.e., political skill and leader effectiveness), we compared a confirmatory general factor and a confirmatory two-correlated factors model with Mplus (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012). The general factor model had a χ2(df = 405) = 1,623.49. The χ2(df = 404) = 1,290.12 value of the two-correlated factors model substantially decreased Δχ2(df = 1) = 333.37 (p < .0001). The goodness of fit indices of the two-factor model (RMSEA = .12, CFI = .73, TLI = .71, SRMR = .082) were in the normal range (e.g., Dahling et al., 2009, Table 5; Parker et al., 1993). All items positively and significantly (p < .005) loaded on their respective factors, and, with one exception, which was .25, all other items had factor loadings beyond .50. These results support the uniqueness and distinctiveness of both scales.
In line with H1, we found a significant Machiavellianism × political skill interaction effect on transformational leadership (Table 2, Model 1b; β = .27, p = .001, ΔR2 = 6.7%). The cumulative probability of finding significant effects for the interaction was 93.18% (Bliese & Wang, 2020). Using the Johnson–Neyman technique (Hayes, 2015a), we found that the conditional effect of Machiavellianism on transformational leadership was significantly negative at all political skill values below 0 SD (with CVs below −0.50 SD) and significantly positive at all political skill values above 1.65 SD (with CVs above 1.50 SD; Table 3).
The plot of the interaction (Figure 2) shows the form of the Machiavellianism × political skill interaction at low (i.e., −1.5 SD), medium (i.e., 0 SD), and high (i.e., 1.65 SD) levels of political skill. When political skill was low (z = −1.5), Machiavellianism negatively predicted transformational leader behavior (b = −0.34, p = .001). At medium political skill (z = 0), Machiavellianism negatively predicted transformational leader behavior (b = −0.10, p = .021). When political skill was high (z = 1.65), Machiavellianism positively predicted transformational leader behavior (b = 0.16, p = .014). Including CVs did not substantially change our results (Table 2: Model 1c).
In line with H2, we found a significant positive effect of transformational leadership on leader effectiveness (Table 2: Model 2a; β = .30, p < .001, R2 = 9.1%). The cumulative probability of finding significant effects was 96.66% (Bliese & Wang, 2020). Entering CVs did not change our results (Table 2: Model 2b). The IMM was 0.08, and the 95% CI excluded zero (SE = 0.04; 95% CI [0.023, 0.172]; with CVs: IMM = 0.09, SE = 0.04; 95% CI [0.024, 0.177]).
Table 3 displays the results for the conditional indirect effect of Machiavellianism on leader effectiveness via transformational leader behavior. In the model without CVs, when political skill was low (z = −1.5), there was a negative and significant relation between Machiavellianism and leader effectiveness (b = −0.18, SE = 0.08, 95% CI [−0.356, −0.053]). When political skill was medium (z = 0), there was a negative and significant relation between Machiavellianism and leader effectiveness (b = −0.05, SE = 0.03, 95% CI [−0.130, −0.008]). When political skill was high (z = 1.65), there was a positive and significant relation between Machiavellianism and leader effectiveness (b = 0.08, SE = 0.06, 95% CI [0.006, 0.229]). Including CVs did not significantly change the results (Table 3). For additional post hoc analyses, see ESM 1.
Discussion
This multisource study (target leaders–subordinates–superiors) shows that leaders with high Machiavellianism and strong political skill are seen by their subordinates as displaying transformational leader behavior, which, in turn, is positively associated with superior-rated leader effectiveness. Thus, strong political skill promotes Machiavellian leader effectiveness.
Previous studies show mixed and often negative work outcomes for Machiavellians (e.g., Kiazad et al., 2010; Volmer et al., 2016; Wisse & Sleebos, 2016), indicating that, in some cases, Machiavellians are effective leaders. One reason for the predominantly negative relation with leader effectiveness is that Machiavellians, like others, often lack enhanced social capabilities. Based on our results, it seems that Machiavellians require particularly high political skill to be effective leaders (Wilson et al., 1998). These leaders seem to make strategic use of social behaviors, allowing them to advance their ambitions of influence and secure limited resources. However, with medium political skill, it is unlikely that attempts toward transformational behavior are perceived as prosocial. Machiavellian leaders with medium or low political skill display reduced transformational behaviors, resulting in dramatically reduced effectiveness.
Remarkably, even at medium levels of political skill, we found a negative relationship between Machiavellianism and transformational leadership. Furthermore, only the top 5% of politically skilled leaders (z = 1.65) displayed increased transformational leadership with increasing levels of Machiavellianism. Smith and Webster (2017) and Kholin et al. (2020) found that context can activate political skill, and we investigated the activating context of a leadership position. Future research could examine these relationships in other enterprising work environments, such as jobs with high demands for bargaining or selling (Silvester et al., 2020).
Our results contribute to the investigation of Machiavellianism's manifestation in work and leadership contexts. Jones (2014) speculated that Machiavellians with very high social skill penetrate organizations in a long-term process, for which Blickle et al. (2020) found partial support. Thus, strong political skill may provide Machiavellian leaders with the impulse control in social situations needed to pursue a long-term goal, while maintaining ulterior motives. Moreover, although research generally emphasizes beneficial outcomes for followers of the politically skilled (e.g., teams of subordinates; Ahearn et al., 2004), some studies found political skill to also mask deviant workplace behavior, thereby creating a protective façade for the wrongdoer (Harvey et al., 2014; Treadway et al., 2013). Transformational leadership may be used by leaders with similarly malign intent (O'Reilly & Chatman, 2020). Our study supports this suggestion given that Machiavellian personalities seek selfish goals and engage in amoral manipulation (Dahling et al., 2009).
Furthermore, dark personalities often exhibit extreme manifestations of otherwise potentially beneficial strategies. In this vein, Zettler and Solga (2013) found an inverted U-shaped relation between Machiavellianism and OCB, such that medium levels of Machiavellianism were most beneficial. We tested this possibility in additional post hoc analyses but did not find any curvilinear effects. Thus, in our research, the most effective leaders were those with high levels of Machiavellianism and strong political skill.
Strengths and Limitations
Responding to calls by leadership scholars (e.g., Derue et al., 2011), we investigated a model that specifies precise relations between leader characteristics (i.e., Machiavellianism and political skill), leader behavior (i.e., transformational leadership), and leader effectiveness. Furthermore, using a multisource design, we avoided common source bias (Podsakoff et al., 2012), and we used superior-rated political skill rather than self-assessed political skill. This is an important strength of our study, since social skill is better perceived by the observer than assessed by the actor (Hogan & Shelton, 1998), and other-rated political skill is a stronger indicator of the target's actual interpersonal behavior (Meurs et al., 2010).
The conditional indirect effects of Machiavellianism on leader effectiveness may seem small (see Table 3). However, there is yet no generally accepted effect size classification for complex moderated mediation effects (Lachowicz et al., 2018). Since our measures were cross-sectionally assessed, causal inferences cannot be made. Also, our study could not account for leader reputation development and how that would influence leader effectiveness across time (Van Vugt et al., 2008). In addition, although we believe transformational behavior is an important link between leader Machiavellianism and effectiveness, it is possible that other leader behaviors (e.g., charismatic) could also mediate this process (Wang et al., 2005). Moreover, the results from our sample of mid- and lower-level leaders cannot speak to senior leader effectiveness.
Future Research and Practical Implications
Future research should address leader reputation development, and how a changing reputation influences effectiveness. Moreover, since strong political skill potentially conceals underlying manipulative and deceitful tendencies of Machiavellian individuals, it would be especially useful for studies to collect both subjective and objective performance (Van Vugt et al., 2008).
Finally, Machiavellians pursue careers that give them the greatest possible opportunities for control and influence (Dahling et al., 2009; Spurk et al., 2016). Therefore, organizations should attempt to recognize those high on Machiavellianism early within their tenure and discourage them from acting on these tendencies. If Machiavellians already work in the organization, strengthening a prosocial climate and leadership training could be promising approaches. For instance, prior research suggests that ethical leaders may lessen intentions of Machiavellians to behave unethically (Ruiz-Palomino & Linuesa-Langreo, 2018).
Conclusion
In line with socioanalytic (Hogan & Shelton, 1998) and trait activation (Tett et al., 2013) theories, this study found empirical evidence that Machiavellians tend to be successful transformational leaders if they also have excellent political skill.
Electronic Supplementary Material
The electronic supplementary material is available with the online version of the article at https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000284
The authors express their gratitude to Robert Hogan and Andreas Wihler for their thorough and insightful comments on a previous draft of this paper and thank Nadine Allard, Theresa Fußhöller, and Kathrin Gumm for their help in the data collection process.
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1This study was not preregistered. The data are available upon reasonable request from the first author.
