The Factorial Structure of Stigma and Its Targets
Abstract
Abstract. We aimed to determine (1) the attributes of multiple stigmatized populations, (2) whether Kurzban and Leary’s (2001) functional typology of stigma emerges and identifies the dimensions upon which each stigma type differs, and (3) the emotional responses toward emergent stigma types. Participants (N = 2,674) were assigned to 1/52 stigma target conditions and their attitudes surveyed. Data were analyzed by multilevel factor analysis with stigma targets at Level 2. There were five within-factors at Level 1 (social competence, interpersonal access, social inclusion, immorality, perceived permanence) and three between-factors at Level 2 (interpersonal stigmatization, morality-based stigmatization, chronic stigmatization). Interpersonal stigmatization was predicted by disgust and pity, and morality-based stigmatization was predicted by disgust and [-]happiness, with no predictors for chronic stigmatization. These results support a functional typology of stigma.
References
(1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
(2000). Stigma and stereotypes. In T.F. HeathertonR.E. KleckM. R. HeblJ. G. Hull (Eds.), The social Psychology of stigma (pp. 88–125). Guilford.
(1990). The evolution of anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(3), 196–201. 10.1521/jscp.1990.9.2.196
(1987). From evolution to behavior: Evolutionary psychology as the missing link. In J. Dupre (Ed.), The latest on the best: Essays on evolution and optimality (pp. 276–306). MIT Press.
(1998). Social stigma. In S. FiskeD. GilbertG. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 504–553). McGraw-Hill.
(2017). Other-condemning moral emotions: Anger, contempt and disgust. ACM Transactions on Internet Technology, 17(1), 1–24. 10.1145/2998570
(1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Prentice Hall.
(1994). Human (Homo sapiens) facial attractiveness and sexual selection: The role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108(3), 233–242. 10.1037/0735-7036.108.3.233
(2019). Emotions as guardians of group norms: Expressions of anger and disgust drive inferences about autonomy and purity violations. Cognition and Emotion, 33(3), 563–578. 10.1080/02699931.2018.1476324
(1991). Newborns' preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline. Cognition, 40(1–2), 1–19. 10.1016/0010-0277(91)90045-6
(1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. Freeman.
(2021). Croon's bias-corrected factor score path analysis for small- to moderate-sample multilevel structural equation models. Organizational Research Methods, 24(1), 55–77. 10.1177/1094428119879758
(2012). Disease-avoidant behaviour and its consequences. Psychology & Health, 27(4), 491–506. 10.1080/08870446.2011.603424
(2001). Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin, 127(7), 187–208. 10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.187
(2000). Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 602–616. 10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602
(2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393–421. 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137
(1994). Multilevel covariance structure analysis. Sociological Methods & Research, 22(3), 376–398. 10.1177/0049124194022003006
(2000). Why people stigmatize: Toward a biocultural framework. In T. F. HeathertonR.E. KleckM. R. HeblJ. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 31–61). Guilford.
(2011). Disease avoidance as a functional basis for stigmatization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1583), 3433–3452. 10.1098/rstb.2011.0095
(2009). Disgust as a disease avoidance mechanism: A review and model. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 303–321. 10.1037/a0014823
(2003). Evolved disease-avoidance processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes and avoidance of people with disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 65–87. 10.1023/A:1023910408854
(2021). Continuum beliefs and mental illness stigma: A systematic review and meta-analysis of correlation and intervention studies. Psychological Medicine, 51(5), 716–726. 10.1017/s0033291721000854
(2008). Stigma and prejudice: One animal or two? Social Science & Medicine, 67(3), 358–367. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.022
(2000). Disgust. In M. LewisJ. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 637–653). Guilford Press.
(2007). The behavioral immune system: Its evolution and social psychological implications. In J. P. ForgasM. G. HaseltonW. von Hippel (Eds.), Evolution and the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and social cognition (pp. 293–307). Psychology Press.
(2009). Estimating statistical power and required sample sizes for organizational research using multilevel modeling. Organizational Research Methods, 12(2), 347–367. 10.1177/1094428107308906
(2000). Threat and the social construction of stigma. In T.F. HeathertonR.E. KleckM.R. HeblJ.G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 62–87). Guilford Press.
(1990). The past explains the present: Emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethology & Sociobiology, 11(4–5), 375–424. 10.1016/0162-3095(90)90017-Z
(2009). Microbes, mating, and morality: Individual differences in three functional domains of disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 103–122. 10.1037/a0015474
(1996). Physical appearance as a basis of stereotyping. In N. MacRaeM. HewstoneC. Stangor (Eds.), Foundations of stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 79–120). Guilford Press.
