Skip to main content
Theoretical Article

Theory Development and Evaluation Within a Critical Media Effects Framework

An Intersectional Identity Approach to Media Psychology

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000339

Abstract. Investigating the role of identity in mediated experiences involves a great deal of complexity. However, media psychologists all too often explore the antecedents and consequences of identity in ways that less than optimally grapple with this complexity. In this essay, we build on the critical media effects (CME) approach to offer innovative ways to theorize about intersectionality within media psychology scholarship. We apply and elaborate on an intersectional approach to identity within media psychology to advance our understanding of media experiences within three key areas: media selectivity, media use, and media effects. We provide recommendations and salient examples for using critical media effects theorizing to examine intersectionality and better realize the complex dynamism of social identity.

References

  • Appiah, O., Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Alter, S. (2013). Ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation: Effects of news valence, character race, and recipient race on selective news reading. Journal of Communication, 63(3), 517–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12032 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bae, R. E., Maloney, E. K., Albarracín, D., & Cappella, J. N. (2019). Does interest in smoking affect youth selection of pro-smoking videos? A selective exposure experiment. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 21(4), 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty037 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Baez, B. (2007). Thinking critically about the “critical”: Quantitative research as social critique. In F. K. StageEd., New directions for institutional research: No. 133. Using quantitative data to answer critical questions (pp. 17–23). Jossey-Bass. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bauer, G. R., & Scheim, A. I. (2019). Methods for analytic intercategorical intersectionality in quantitative research: Discrimination as a mediator of health inequalities. Social Science & Medicine, 226, 236–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.015 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Behm-Morawitz, E. (2017). Examining the intersection of race and gender in videogame advertising. Journal of Marketing Communications, 23, 220–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2014.914562 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Behm-Morawitz, E., & Mastro, D. (2009). The effects of the sexualization of female video game characters on gender stereotyping and female self-concept. Sex Roles, 61, 808–823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9683-8 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Behm-Morawitz, E., Miller, B., & Lewallen, J. (2018). A model for quantitatively analyzing representations of social class in screen media. Communication Research Reports, 35, 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2018.1428544 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Biocca, F. (1997). The cyborg’s dilemma: Progressive embodiment in virtual environments. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2), 12–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00070.x First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bond, B. J. (2018). Parasocial relationships with media personae: Why they matter and how they differ among heterosexual, lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents. Media Psychology, 21(3), 457–485. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2017.1416295 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brown, M., Ray, R., Summers, E., & Fraistat, N. (2017). #SayHerName: A case study of intersectional social media activism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40, 1831–1846. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1334934 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchanan, N. T. (2020). Salient circles diagrams: Making intersectional identities, privilege, power, and marginalization visible. Women & Therapy, 43(3–4), 400–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2020.1729468 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Byrd, C. M., & Andrews, D. J. C. (2016). Variations in students’ perceived reasons for, sources of, and forms of in-school discrimination: A latent class analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 57, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2016.05.001 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Collins, P. (1990). Black feminist thought in the matrix of domination. In P. H. CollinsEd., Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and politics of empowerment (pp. 221–238). Unwin Hyman. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Collins, P., & Bilge, S. (2016). Intersectionality. Polity Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Costanza-Chock, S., Schweidler, C., & Transformative Organizing Media Projects. (2017). Toward transformative media organizing: LGBTQ and two-spirit media work in the United States. Media, Culture, & Society, 39, 159–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443716674360 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Crenshaw, K. W. (1994). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. In M. FinemanR. MykitiukEds., The public nature of private violence (pp. 93–118). Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Dubrow, J. K. (2008). How can we account for intersectionality in quantitative analysis of survey data? Empirical illustration for Central and Eastern Europe. ASK. Research & Methods, 17, 85–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-93168-5_8 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Dvir-Gvirsman, S. (2017). Media audience homophily: Partisan websites, audience identity and polarization processes. New Media & Society, 19(7), 1072–1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815625945 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Figueroa-Caballero, A., Mastro, D., & Stamps, D. (2019). An examination of the effects of mediated intragroup and intergroup interactions among Latino/a characters. Communication Quarterly, 67(3), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2019.1573745 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Fraser, G. (2018). Evaluating inclusive gender identity measures for use in quantitative psychological research. Psychology & Sexuality, 9(4), 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2018.1497693 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Fox, J., Pearce, K. E., Massanari, A. L., Riles, J. M., Szulc, Ł., Ranjit, Y. S., … Gonzales, A. L. (2021). Open science, closed doors? Countering marginalization through an agenda for ethical, inclusive research in communication. Journal of Communication, 71(5), 764–784. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab029 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Fox, J., & Warber, K. M. (2015). Queer identity management and political self-expression on social networking sites: A co-cultural approach to the spiral of silence. Journal of Communication, 65(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12137 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. BryantD. ZillmanEds., Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17–40). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Harnois, C. E., & Bastos, J. L. (2019). The promise and pitfalls of intersectional scale development. Social Science & Medicine, 223, 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.01.039 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hart, W., Richardson, K., Tortoriello, G. K., & Earl, A. (2020). “You are what you read”: Is selective exposure a way people tell us who they are? British Journal of Psychology, 111(3), 417–442. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12414 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hurley, R. J., Riles, J. M., & Sangalang, A. (2014). Online cancer news: Trends regarding article types, specific cancers, and the cancer continuum. Health Communication, 29(1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.715538 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Karsay, K., & Matthes, J. (2020). Sexually objectifying pop music videos, young women’s self-objectification, and selective exposure: A moderated mediation model. Communication Research, 47(3), 428–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650216661434 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Kaye, L. K., Pennington, C. R., & McCann, J. J. (2018). Do casual gaming environments evoke stereotype threat? Examining the effects of implicit priming and avatar gender. Computers in Human Behavior, 78, 142–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.09.031 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2015). The selective exposure self-and affect-management (SESAM) model: Applications in the realms of race, politics, and health. Communication Research, 42(7), 959–985. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650214539173 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Hastall, M. R. (2010). Please yourself: Social identity effects on selective exposure to news about in-and out-groups. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01495.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Mothes, C., & Polavin, N. (2020). Confirmation bias, ingroup bias, and negativity bias in selective exposure to political information. Communication Research, 47, 104–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217719596 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Robinson, M. J., Willis, L. E., & Luong, K. T. (2016). Beauty or business queen: How young women select media to reinforce possible future selves. Communication Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215626978 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Westerwick, A. (2020). Mediated communication & you: An introduction to internet & media effects. Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Lewis, T. T., Cogburn, C. D., & Williams, D. R. (2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 407–440. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Luong, K. T., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2017). Can the media help women be better at math? Stereotype threat, selective exposure, media effects, and women’s math performance. Human Communication Research, 43(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12101 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Luong, K. T., Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Frampton, J. (2019). Temporal self impacts on media exposure & effects: A test of the selective exposure self-and affect-management (SESAM) model. Media Psychology, , 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2019.1657898 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38(1), 299–337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.38.1.299 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mastro, D., Behm-Morawitz, E., & Ortiz, M. (2007). The cultivation of social perceptions of Latinos: A mental models approach. Media Psychology, 9(2), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260701286106 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mastro, D., & Stamps, D. (2018). Race/ethnicity and media. In P. NapoliEd., Mediated communication: Handbook of communication science (pp. 341–358). de Gruyter. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs, 30(3), 1771–1800. https://doi.org/10.1086/426800 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McQuail, D., Blumler, J., & Brown, J. (1972). The television audience: A revised perspective. In D. McQuailEd., Sociology of mass communications. Penguin Books. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meyer, M. D. E. (2010). Representing bisexuality on television: The case for intersectional hybrids. Journal of Bisexuality, 10, 366–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2010.521040 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Nario-Redmond, M. R., Biernat, M., Eidelman, S., & Palenske, D. J. (2004). The social and personal identities scale: A measure of the differential importance ascribed to social and personal self-categorizations. Self and Identity, 3(2), 143–175. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Nölke, A.-I. (2018). Making diversity conform? An intersectional, longitudinal analysis of LGBT-specific mainstream media advertisements. Journal of Homosexuality, 65, 224–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1314163 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Oakes, P. (1987). The salience of social categories. In J. C. TurnerM. A. HoggP. J. OakesS. D. ReicherM. WetherellEds., Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorisation theory (pp. 117–141). Blackwell. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Pilny, A. N., Atouba, Y. C., & Riles, J. M. (2014). How do SMOs create moral resources? The roles of media visibility, networks, activism, and political capacity. Western Journal of Communication, 78(3), 358–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.866689 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ramasubramanian, S. (2016). Racial/ethnic identity, community-oriented media initiatives, and transmedia storytelling. The Information Society, 32, 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2016.1212618 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ramasubramanian, S., & Banjo, O. (2020). Critical media effects framework: Bridging critical cultural communication and media effects through power, intersectionality, context, and agency. Journal of Communication, 70(3), 379–400. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqaa014 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Reinecke, L. (2017). Mood management theory. In P. RosslerEd., The international encyclopedia of media effects (pp. 1271–1284). John Wiley & Sons. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Riles, J. M. (2020). The social effect of exposure to mental illness media portrayals: Influencing interpersonal interaction intentions. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000217 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riles, J. M., Behm-Morawitz, E., Shin, H., & Funk, M. (2020). The effect of news peril-type on social inclinations: A social group comparison. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 97(3), 721–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699019855633 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riles, J. M., Funk, M., & Davis, W. (2020). Positive exposure to Muslims and perceptions of a disdainful public: A model of mediated social dissent. Communication Monographs, 86(3), 292–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2018.1554904 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riles, J. M., Pilny, A., & Tewksbury, D. (2018). Media fragmentation in the context of bounded social networks: How far can it go? New Media & Society, 20(4), 1415–1432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817696242 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Saleem, M., & Ramasubramanian, S. (2019). Muslim Americans’ responses to social identity threats: Effects of media representations and experiences of discrimination. Media Psychology, 22(3), 373–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2017.1302345 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Scheim, A. I., & Bauer, G. R. (2019). The Intersectional Discrimination Index: Development and validation of measures of self-reported enacted and anticipated discrimination for intercategorical analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 226, 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.016 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Scheufele, D. A. (2000). Agenda-setting, priming, and framing revisited: Another look at cognitive effects of political communication. Mass Communication and Society, 3, 297–316. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0323_07 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Simon, B., & Grabow, O. (2010). The politicization of migrants: Further evidence that politicized collective identity is a dual identity. Political Psychology, 31(5), 717–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00782.x First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stage, F. K., & Wells, R. S. (2014). Critical quantitative inquiry in context. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2013(158), 1–7. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Steinbugler, A. C., Press, J. E., & Dias, J. J. (2006). Gender, race, and affirmative action: Operationalizing intersectionality in survey research. Gender & Society, 20(6), 805–825. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206293299 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tewksbury, D., & Riles, J. M. (2018). Framing in an interactive news environment. In P. AngeloEd., Doing news framing analysis 2: Empirical and theoretical perspectives (pp. 177–202). Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tuchman, G. (2000). The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media. In L. CrothersC. LockhartEds., Culture and politics (pp. 150–174). Palgrave Macmillan. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Tukachinsky, R., Mastro, D., & Yarchi, M. (2015). Documenting portrayals of race/ethnicity in the media over a 20-year span and their association with national-level racial/ethnic attitudes. Journal of Social Issues, 71, 17–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12094 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • VanderWeele, T. J. (2013). A three-way decomposition of a total effect into direct, indirect, and interactive effects. Epidemiology, 24(2), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e318281a64e First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, 63(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024 First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar